The Middle Bronze Age is associated with the second phase in the development of the CMP and is dated in the traditional chronology system as the last third of the 3rd - first third of the 2nd millennium BC. However, the study of materials from different regions reveals the “floating” nature of its final boundary. For example, in Transcaucasia and the North-Western Black Sea region, it completes its development no earlier than the middle of the 2nd millennium BC.
In the Middle Bronze Age, the province's territory expanded noticeably to the north. The southern limits of the CMP remain the same.
At the beginning of the Middle Bronze Age, in the central centers of the CMP, a traditional set of leading types of tools and weapons was preserved: socketed axes, handle knives, awls, chisels with stops, and flat adzes. By the end of the Middle Bronze Age, the variety of tool forms increased noticeably, especially in the types of socketed axes. This is caused by the emergence of new technologies for their casting. Open double-leaf casting molds with an insert core are being replaced by double-leaf molds of semi-closed and closed types, which are filled with metal through a narrow slot or a special channel (sprue). The closed shape made it possible to obtain axes with very complex configurations. The variability of tools increases, first of all, due to changes in the shape of their bushings and butts. Lowering the butt of the ax in relation to its body leads to the appearance of “hanging” type weapons. In addition, the sleeve is often elongated compared to the wedge and receives a kind of tubular termination.
The beginning of the use of tin bronzes within the CMP is associated with the casting of axes of complex varieties (loose-butted, tubular-butted). The latter, along with multicomponent alloys based on copper with additions of tin, arsenic and antimony, are becoming widespread in the Caucasus, partly in Asia Minor and the Balkan-Carpathian region, coexisting here with arsenic bronzes. Copper-arsenic alloys retained their dominant position in the steppe zone of the Northern Black Sea region, and in the Southern Urals, in the Middle and Lower Volga regions, products made of pure copper turned out to be extremely durable.
Northern part of the Circumpontic metallurgical province in the Middle Bronze Age. Archaeological cultures, monuments and centers of metal production:
1 - culture of Troy II-III (center of metallurgy); 2 - monuments of Central Anatolia (a hotbed of metallurgy); 3 - northern Bulgarian focus; 4 - Carpatho-Transylvanian focus; 5 - Middle Danube focus; 6 - catacomb cultures (two centers of metalworking); 7 - North Caucasian cultural region (two centers of metalworking); 8 - Trialeti culture (center of metallurgy); 9 - Poltavka culture (center of metallurgy); 10- Fatyanovo-Balanovo culture (center of metallurgy); 11 - boundaries of the CMP; 12 - proposed boundaries of the CMP
The introduction of tin bronzes into production was an important technical achievement. These bronzes were distinguished by excellent casting properties combined with high malleability. They had clear advantages over arsenic bronzes, since they did not change the original
composition when heated and therefore turned out to be stronger and harder than them. In addition, they were not toxic, which was the main reason for their popularity.
Another important event in the second phase of development of the CMP was the sudden growth in the scale of mining and metallurgical production. Its production increases on average 4-5 times in comparison with the Early Bronze Age.
These changes were accompanied by significant ethnocultural changes. In the Northern Black Sea region, monuments of the Yamnaya community and the Usatovo culture are disappearing. On their former territory, an array of cultures of the catacomb cultural and historical community is being formed. In the foothills of the North Caucasus, the bright Maikop monuments are being replaced by modest burial grounds left by the population of the North Caucasian community. A whole group of new cultures also appears in the Carpathian Basin. However, despite the cultural transformation, economic and social development in the northern zone of the CMP during the Middle Bronze Age continues the traditions that emerged in the previous period.
Diagnostic forms of Middle Bronze Age artifacts within the Circumpontian metallurgical province:
1, 2 - closed casting molds for making axes; 3- ax with a long tubular sleeve; 4, 5, 12, 24, 25 - double-edged dagger knives; 6, 13-18 - socketed axes; 7 - sleeved chisel; 8 - awl; 9, 10 - tesla; 11 - hook; 19 - spear tip; 20-23 - decorations
A completely different picture is observed in the southern zone of the province. Here, cultures with a relatively undifferentiated social structure are replaced by “socially ranked” cultures, demonstrating actively ongoing processes of class formation. Vivid evidence of this is the “royal” graves of Aladzha and Khoroz-tepe in Central Anatolia, the richest treasures buried at the time of the death of Troy II. The same phenomena are observed in Transcaucasia, where huge mounds of the Kirovokan-Trialeti type are being built, containing uniquely rich funeral gifts. The restructuring of political structures is clearly visible in the Middle Minoan period in Crete. An expression of the enormous concentration of power and wealth here are the monumental palace buildings of Knossos, Mallia, Festus, tombs and temple buildings that amaze with their wealth. As is known, the palace period of Crete gave Europe the first Bronze Age civilization. Thus, in the southern zone of the CMP, a large region is outlined - the Aegean Basin, Asia Minor, Transcaucasia, where sociocultural processes have acquired, at least in partial expression, a similar direction.
Let's turn to Asia Minor. A still powerful metallurgical center is developing in the north-west of Anatolia (in Troad). In time it covers the period of Troy II-III. The settlement of Troy II arose after the destruction of Troy I. Traces of some kind of catastrophe and the emergence of a new culture (Troy II) were recorded throughout the western and southwestern coast of Anatolia, even in those areas where the culture of Troy I was unknown. The cause of the disaster itself is unclear - whether it was caused by a military invasion of tribes advancing from the Balkans, or by a major earthquake that swept through the entire Eastern Mediterranean. Be that as it may, the new culture has little connection with the previous one.
Bronze weapons of the time of Troy II-III:
1-5 - daggers; 6-10 - spear tips; 11, 13, 14, 16 - battle axes; 12, 15, 17 - axes
First of all, Troy II itself turns into a city surrounded by powerful stone walls, behind which there were both small buildings and a complex of palace-type structures. Among them is a huge megaron 35 m long - probably the residence of a local ruler and small megarons - possibly temple complexes. Some researchers believe that Troy II was a royal fortress in a state that included, in addition to Troas, the Gallipoli Peninsula and part of the coastal islands of the Aegean Sea.
The brilliant flowering of bronze metallurgy in western Anatolia during the period of Troy II-III has plenty of evidence. Huge series of bronze weapons, tools, and jewelry appeared. Daggers, battle axes, axes, sceptres, spears with slits in the feather, flat adzes, and knives with blown-curved blades are widely represented. For the first time, not only arsenic, but also tin bronzes are used for their production. The serial production of these items at Troy II-III is confirmed by the findings of many foundry molds made of clay and stone.
Jewelry art has reached a high level. In the famous 19 Trojan treasures found at the end of the 19th century. G. Schliemann discovered about 10 thousand objects, mostly gold (vessels, earrings, temple rings, beads, bracelets, pins, etc.). Most of them are associated with the final period of the existence of Troy II. The pottery of the Troy II-III Culture is partially made on the potter's wheel and is usually covered with a red veneer. The shapes of the dishes are varied: anthropomorphic “face urns”, jugs, goblets with two looped handles, bowls with one or two handles, vessels in the form of animals, etc.
Another center of metallurgy was active during the Middle Bronze Age in Central Anatolia. The richest “royal” burials were discovered here. The most famous burials are in the town of Aladzha Heyuk near Bogazkoy. These graves looked like huge rectangular pits with large stones along the edges. On top of the pits there was a ramp of wooden beams; on them lay rows of bull heads and legs - the remains of funeral feasts. Sculptural images of bulls and deer, decorated with inlays of gold and silver, were found in each grave. They were apparently placed at the ends of wooden standards that were carried in front of the funeral bier. Each burial also contained other ritual objects, in particular bronze openwork “sun disks”, decorated along the edges with rustling pendants in the shape of birds and animals. The funeral gifts included two daggers made of meteorite iron with gilded handles, tiaras made of sheet gold with openwork patterns, gold brooches of various shapes, bracelets, thousands of gold beads, and a mass of vessels made of bronze, copper, gold and silver.
Ceramics of the Troy II-III culture:
1, 2 - “facial ballot boxes”; 3 - jug; 4, 7 - cups; 5, 8 - bowls; 6 - askos; 9 - cover
The weapons of the buried consisted of swords, daggers, axes with a serrated working edge, and spearheads. Similar forms of products are also known in other monuments of Central and Pontic Anatolia (Khoroz-tepe, Mahmatlar). The variety and abundance of objects made of precious metals discovered in them speaks of a far-reaching process of property and social stratification of the local society.
We find similar phenomena in Transcaucasia, where the Trialeti culture developed in the Middle Bronze Age. In the history of the Trialeti culture, two chronological stages are outlined: the early, Bedensky, and the late, Kirovka-Trialetsky. The Vedeno monuments are known only in southern Georgia. These are mounds with large mounds, sometimes with stone structures. They contain burials on wooden beds, accompanied by dishes with a black-polished surface, items made of precious metals, carts, sacrificial animals, human sacrifices (Bedeni, Tsnore, Khovle, etc.). Black-polished vessels with different geometric patterns are similar to pottery of the previous Kura-Araks culture, which apparently played a decisive role in the formation of the Early Trialetian complexes. The metal of the Beden period also has something in common with the Kuro-Araxian metal. In addition to the forms of products traditional for the CMP, the Beden complexes contain spearheads with faceted handles, typical of Kura-Araks antiquities. The formulation of bronzes becomes more complicated. In addition to alloys of copper and arsenic, tin bronzes are used, as well as multicomponent alloys with the addition of arsenic, antimony and zinc. Obviously, at this time the exploitation of polymetallic deposits of the Lesser Caucasus begins.
The only settlement of the Beden stage is Berikldeebi near Gori, where the remains of dwellings, rectangular at the base, made of stones, have been studied. Around them are ceramics, household and religious objects.
The late stage, or the period of the “blooming time” of the Trialeti culture, is marked by a noticeable expansion of its territory up to the Greater Caucasus in the north and the right bank of the Araks, lakes Van and Urmia in the south. The burials of the family nobility have been best studied. They are covered with huge mounds with stone embankments. Under them are adobe platforms, vast grave pits or huge burial halls with walls made of stones and covered with logs. The deceased was placed in the center of these structures on a wooden bed, sometimes on a chariot. Both mortification and cremation occur. Along the edges or walls of the graves there were luxurious black-polished or red clay vessels with black painting. The basis of the painting was wavy lines (“water pattern”) and bird figures. The grave goods included stone arrows, maces, bronze cauldrons, silver and gold jewelry. Vessels made of precious metals became especially famous. Thus, in one of the mounds of Trialeti in southern Georgia, a silver bucket with chased images of hunting scenes and a gold cup inlaid with carnelian and turquoise inserts were discovered. A silver cup from another mound is decorated with belts of chased designs: the top one shows a procession of people to a deity sitting on a throne, and the bottom one shows a line of walking deer. The style of the images is undoubtedly related to the Hittite tradition. Precious vessels and objects of the Trialeti type are now known in many places in Transcaucasia - in Uzunlar (Azerbaijan), in the town of Karashamb and in Kirovakan (Armenia), etc.
At the late stage of the Trialeti culture, a number of forms common to the second phase of the development of the CMP were preserved: handle knives, awls with a stop, double-edged daggers, socketed axes, forged spearheads. The use of complex copper-based alloys continues: with arsenic, tin, and sometimes antimony.
Items from the Trialeti burial mounds in southern Georgia:
1 - gold cup with carnelian and turquoise inserts; 2 - silver cup with chased images; 3 - clay vessel with black painting on a white background; 4 - silver bucket
The Transcaucasian (Trialetsky) metallurgical center was closely connected with the North Caucasian ones, which replaced the Maikop one. One of them operated in the Kuban region, the other in the Terek basin. The cultural affiliation of the workshops operating here has not yet been definitively determined. A striking feature of the North Caucasian hearths is their production, which consisted not only of tools and weapons, but also of a magnificent set of jewelry. A significant part of them were cast using a wax model from highly alloyed arsenic bronzes (up to 20-30% arsenic).
Bronze decorations of the Terek hearth:
1-3, 5, 6, 13- pins; 4- bell pendant; 7, 8, 14 - medallions; 9-temporal ring;
10- bracelet; 11, 12- plaques
Earrings, temple rings, bracelets, and costume details (piercings, pendants, plaques, pins) were distinguished by a variety of forms. They are often covered with embossed corded or geometric designs.
Under strong Caucasian influence, metalworking developed among the population of the Ciscaucasia and Northern Black Sea region, where catacomb tribes lived in the Middle Bronze Age. Their monuments are usually considered within the framework of the catacomb cultural and historical community, dating from the last third of the 3rd - first third of the 2nd millennium BC. Within the community there are more than ten independent catacomb cultures. The differences between them are manifested primarily in ceramics, in some categories of funeral items, as well as in the specifics of the funeral rite. But they also have a common feature - burials in catacombs, structures consisting of two chambers - a pit and a side niche (dromos). Along with them, there are also other forms of burial practices that were inherited from previous times.
The main source for studying the catacomb community are numerous burial mounds. Their habitat in the west reaches the Prut, in the east it extends to the Volga, in the north the border enters the forest-steppe, in the south it covers the entire Ciscaucasia and the Azov-Black Sea steppe. Unlike burials, settlements of the catacomb tribes are extremely rare. In the steppe zone, these are seasonal camps of cattle breeders near the banks of large rivers without traces of residential buildings. In the forest-steppe on the Middle Don and Seversky Donets there are stationary settlements of the late Catacomb period.
The central place in the catacomb community is occupied by the Donetsk catacomb culture. Its monuments are confined to the basin of the middle and lower reaches of the Seversky Donets, as well as to the right bank of the Lower Don. Most of the burials were “let in” here into the burial mounds of the Yamnaya period. In the catacomb, the deceased was usually placed in a crouched position on his right side, facing the entrance, sprinkled with red ocher, and the entrance to the dromos was covered with slabs, stones, wood or turf. The deceased was accompanied by a variety of grave goods. Ceramics are the most abundant. These are round-sided pots with a straight neck and goblets, decorated with imprints of a cord and a comb stamp, forming circles, complex spirals, semicircular festoons, horizontal stripes, herringbone, etc. Occasionally, incense burners are found - small bowls with an internal partition on a cross-shaped foot-stand. They could be used to burn incense.
The graves also contain items made of flint and stone: scrapers, spear and arrowheads, mace heads, hammer axes, pestles, and graters. But they especially contain a lot of metal - tools and decorations that copy Caucasian samples down to the details (grooved chisels, daggers, hooks with loose sockets, medallions, pendants, beads). The close connection with the Caucasus is confirmed by the use of imported arsenic bronzes. At the same time, there is no doubt about the originality of the local center of metalworking. It is manifested in the specific form of Donetsk socketed axes with a shortened wedge (Koltaevsky type), in the presence of a series of burials of blacksmiths and foundry workers (Prishib, Kramatorsk, etc.).
Within the catacomb community, there was another center of metalworking - the Manych one. It is associated with the Manyn (Pre-Caucasian) culture, widespread in Kalmykia, the Stavropol Territory and part of the Rostov Region. The unique shapes of knives are known here, and the burial of a foundry worker was also discovered (Veselaya Roshcha farm).
The economic models of the catacomb tribes were determined by the ecosystems of the steppe and forest-steppe zones. The model of mobile nomadic pastoralism, based on the breeding of large and small livestock, has taken root in the steppe. Compared to the Yamnaya period, not only floodplain and riverine pastures, but also watershed pastures are used. In the forest-steppe, a model of pastoral, domestic cattle breeding with a predominance of cattle and pigs in the herd has spread. Part of the population switched to a sedentary lifestyle. If agriculture existed, it had an auxiliary significance in the local life support system.
The question of the origin of the catacomb community is still debatable. Autochthonous and migration theories of its origin are discussed. The most substantiated point of view is that the Catacomb population goes back genetically to the Yamnaya, which experienced a strong migratory impact of the populations of Ciscaucasia.
Items from burials of the Donetsk catacomb culture:
1,2 - awls; 3 - chisel with stop; 4 - hook; 5 - adze; 6-10 - knives-daggers; 11 - socketed ax; 12 - mold for casting an ax
To the north of the zone of distribution of the catacomb tribes, the Fatyanovo-Balanovo cultural and historical community was formed in the Middle Bronze Age. Its habitat is associated with the zone of broad-leaved forests of European Russia from the Desna in the west to the Kama and Vyatka in the east. Several large local groups of monuments stand out here. One of them - the Middle Volga - was previously identified with a special Balanovo culture, related to the Fatyanovo culture. However, it is now becoming clear that the differences between the Fatyanovo and Balanovo monuments do not go beyond the uniqueness of local variants of a single cultural and historical community.
The Fatyanovo-Balanovo sites are usually included within the vast area of the so-called Corded Ware cultures. It covered Central and part of Northern Europe and the forest belt of Eastern Europe. Numerous parallels indicate that the main connections of the Fatyanovo population go to the western and southwestern regions of this region, to the Southern Baltic, the Dnieper region, and the Carpathians. Apparently, at the turn of the 3rd and 2nd millennium BC. It was from here that significant groups of the population began to move eastward, forming the basis of the Fatyanovo-Balanovo community. Penetrating into the Central Russian forests, they occupy the territory of the Late Volosov Post-Neolithic tribes that previously lived here. In the Volosovo settlements of the Volga-Oka interfluve, a thin cultural layer is sometimes discovered, which is associated with the presence of the Fatyanovo people on them. However, in the area of the Balanovo group, stationary settlements and settlements are also known, where the remains of residential, economic and defensive structures have been uncovered.
Necropolises in the area of this community are, as a rule, without mounds and unpaved. The burial mounds are found sporadically only in the eastern regions, in the Middle Volga region (Atlikasy, Churachiki, etc.), where they are associated with a special Atlicasin group of monuments.
The burial grounds are unequal in the number of burials: along with small ones, very large ones are known. For example, there are more than a hundred burials in the Volosovo-Danilovskoye and Balanovskoye ground cemeteries in the Upper and Middle Volga.
Burials in ground necropolises, single or paired, were made in deep and large rectangular pits, the walls of which were lined with wood, and the bottom was lined with boards and birch bark. The buried were sprinkled with white lime, chalk or ocher. They were placed crouched on their sides: men on the right, women on the left. Collective burials are known in the mounds of the Atlicasin group.
Men's burials (less often women's and children's) were accompanied by drilled stone axes of various shapes (some in profile resemble a boat), wedge-shaped flint adzes, knives, arrowheads and darts, bone points, pendants made of amber and river shells, amulets from bear and boar tusks.
The Fatyanovo and Balanovskaya dishes were distinguished, as a rule, by a spherical or turnip-shaped body, and the Atlicasinskaya one was bomb-shaped, with a high cylindrical neck. The ceramics of both groups were decorated with geometric zonal patterns of rhombuses, triangles, zigzags,
made with a jagged or smooth stamp, carved or drawn lines.
Inventory of Fatyanovo burial grounds:
1-3 - vessels; 4, 5 - flint arrowheads; 6 - flint knife; 7, 9 - amber pendants; 8- necklace made of bone beads; 10- amulets made from boar tusks; 11 - bone puncture; 12, 13 - stone axes; 14, 19, 20 - copper spear tips; 15-stone wedge-shaped axe; 16- copper socketed axe; 17 - copper pendant; 18 - copper awl; 21 - cuff bracelet; 22- copper temple ring
Materials from settlements (Kubashevskoye, Vasilsurskoye, etc.) indicate that domestic cattle breeding played a leading role in the life support system. The herd was dominated by cattle and pigs - the main sources of meat and dairy food. Cattle breeding was supplemented by hunting, fishing and gathering.
The Fatyanovo and Balanovites were the first metallurgists in the central and northeastern part of Eastern Europe. Under their influence, metal and metalworking appeared among local post-Neolithic tribes. Mining and metallurgical production actively developed only in the east of the Fatyanovo-Balanovo world - in the Lower Kama region and the Vyatka-Kama interfluve. It is here that the outcrops of cuprous sandstones are concentrated, the smelting of which yielded pure copper. From here it went to the western regions of the community. The products of the Fatyanovo-Balanovo hearth are represented by socketed axes, forged spearheads, awls, and various decorations (spectacle-shaped, wire and plate pendants, cuff-shaped bracelets, etc.). The ax casting technology complies with CMP standards. This is evidenced by double-leaf clay molds discovered in the Volosovo-Danilovsky and Churachinsky burial grounds.
1878 Was born Felix Marie Abel- French scientist, specialist in biblical archaeology. 1922 Born - archaeologist, doctor of historical sciences, specialist in the Bronze Age of the Caucasus, studied dolmens of the North Caucasus and Abkhazia, artist. 1949 Born - Soviet and Russian archaeologist, specialist in the field of the Paleolithic of the Caucasus and the Middle East. Corresponding Member of the Russian Academy of Sciences. Days of Death 1839 Died Antonio Nibbi- Italian archaeologist, topographer, restorer, specialist in Roman archaeology, professor of archeology at the University of Rome and the French Academy in Rome.Black gold is a metal that has been gaining popularity in recent years. Jewelry of this shade is in demand. Jewelers say that blackened gold is a godsend for jewelry designers. It has a lot of positive qualities and, despite the cost, always finds buyers.
Black gold ring with stones
How do you get it?
Color can be achieved in three ways:
- Chromium, cobalt and sulfur are added to the alloy.
- Covered with a layer of rhodium.
- Using amorphous carbon.
Chromium and cobalt are present in the alloy in the amount of 25%, so jewelry of this color has a purity of 750. If this is not enough, then the alloy is processed; it undergoes oxidation at high temperatures.
Characteristics of the components of the ligature:
- Cobalt is a silvery element with a yellowish or bluish tint. Durable, oxidizes at temperatures above 300 degrees.
- Chrome is a hard element and has a blue or black tint. Amenable to mechanical action.
- Sulfur acts as an additional material; it is capable of creating compounds with carbon and other elements.
By adding these materials to the alloy, the alloy becomes durable, practical and acquires the desired shade.
Earrings made of white and black gold
Jewelry is coated with rhodium - this process is called rhodium plating. As a result, a film is formed on the surface of the product, which protects against damage and adds color. Rhodium plating is a complex process; the surface of the metal can be coated not only with rhodium, but also with amorphous carbon.
When rhodium plating, the master can control the process of changing the color of the jewelry. The product receives a shade from gray to black. Today, laser technology is used to make such jewelry.
Benefits of Jewelry
The rhodium plating process gives the ligature:
- Strength.
- Wear resistance.
- Color.
Blackening of gold gives the metal strength and ductility. Even products of high standard retain all the qualities of yellow metal and at the same time have good strength.
Rhodium plating improves wear resistance. As a result, the jewelry does not oxidize; the film that covers the surface of the product protects it from environmental factors and reagents.
Panther ring in white and black gold
Color is one of the advantages; Along with white, rose and yellow gold, black retains its uniqueness due to its hue. Jewelry of this color goes well with business suits and luxurious outfits.
In addition, metal is combined with the following stones:
- opal;
- emerald;
- ruby;
- diamond.
Jewelers treated ferrous metal with caution; the reason for this was the stones with which jewelry was encrusted. If platinum and gold hide the flaws of stones, then black gold can show them off. Therefore, for a long time, products were decorated only with black diamonds.
But recently you can find jewelry inlaid with other stones on store shelves, and it turned out that this combination is no worse. The stones not only delight with their shine, but also match the texture of metal.
But a wedding ring made of this metal is considered a classic. It represents the direction of minimalism and does not require inlay with stones.
Black gold jewelry is complemented with one stone, this is quite enough.
Shade range
Jewelry has several shades, from light gray, brown to dark, black, which is obtained in various ways.
Jewelers say that items made of purple, blue and brown gold are popular today, but over time the jewelry will darken.
The shade of the product depends on how the metal has been processed. A rich black color can only be achieved by laser processing the surface of the jewelry.
When chromium, cobalt or sulfur is added to the alloy, the shade of the metal changes, it becomes gray or brown.
The most popular is the rhodium plating process, when a film of the desired shade is formed on the surface of the product. In addition to color, the decoration becomes durable and resistant to environmental factors. It does not oxidize and is easy to clean. But the film wears off over time, and it can also be damaged mechanically.
What is black gold jewelry? These are products that are durable, resistant to oxidation, and can be combined with various stones. Today, not only jewelry, but also watches made from this alloy are popular. They have a high cost and, along with rings and bracelets, adorn the hands of men.
The combination of a watch mechanism and jewelry is the choice of strong and self-confident individuals. The downside of such accessories is their cost, which is not accessible.
Oil is our breadwinner, our pride and the main guideline for economic development in our country. This year, the Mangystau region has many reasons to celebrate. For example, this year marks the 50th anniversary of the formation of the Mangyshlakneftegazstroy trust (January 1, 1965), and the 50th anniversary of the creation of the Mangyshlak Oil and Gas Product Pipeline Management (June 16, 1965). 50 years have passed (May 19-20, 1965) when the first All-Union scientific and practical conference of oil workers and oil explorers on the development of the resources of the Mangyshlak Peninsula was held in Shevchenko. On July 10, 1965, the first batch of Uzen oil was loaded and sent along the Uzen-Mangyshlak-Makat railway. The Uzen-Zhetybai-Shevchenko oil pipeline with a length of 140 km was put into operation, which made it possible to transport Mangistau oil through the Aktau seaport. The Uzen-Aktau asphalt highway was built. Today on the pages of “OM” we will remember the wanderers of the history of the distant 60s, namely, we will tell how the management of the Mangyshlak oil and gas product pipelines was created 50 years ago.
“Black gold”, “blood of the earth”, “engine of modern industry” – as they call it! The role of oil in the development of mankind is truly enormous. Modern industry is unthinkable without hydrocarbons. Oil production for Kazakhstan, as for many countries, is one of the priority and profitable industries.
The birth of a new oil-producing region is associated with the discovery of the Uzen and Zhetybai fields in 1961. The first information about oil shows in Mangyshlak is associated with the name of G. Karelin (1801-1872). Further study of the wealth of Mangyshlak was carried out by M. I. Ivanin (1846), A. E. Alekseev (1832), A. I. Antipov (1851), N. I. Andrusov (1887), M V. Bayarunos (1887), G. A. Nasibyanets (1899-1901). V.V. Mokrinsky (1920), the first geological map of Mangyshlak was compiled. In the 30s S. N. Alekseychik compiled the first schematic map of Mangyshlak’s oil content. In 1947-1957 In the study of the subsoil of Mangyshlak, the role of scientists from the Leningrad Institute VNIGRI A. A. Savelyev, N. F. Kuznetsov, oil explorers B. F. Dyakov, N. N. Cherepanov is invaluable. 1961, when the first oil gushers were produced at the Zhetybai and Uzen fields, became the historical date of birth of a new oil-producing region. This was a significant event in more than a century of history of the oil industry of Kazakhstan.
The development of the oil industry in Kazakhstan predetermined the creation of a wide network of pipeline systems. Carrying out a significant amount of exploration work in the central part of the Caspian region during this period necessitated the construction of oil pipelines.
It is known that the starting date for the history of the development of pipeline transport in Kazakhstan was 1935, when the construction of the first Caspian-Orsk oil pipeline with a length of 830 km was completed. Since then, the pipeline system of Kazakhstan has developed from separate isolated pipelines into a single extended and closed system of main oil pipelines, which today uninterruptedly ensures the supply of domestic raw materials to the country’s domestic market and for export. And this large-scale, technologically advanced and complex oil pipeline system is managed by the national main oil pipeline operator, KazTransOil JSC.
However, pipeline oil transport received intensive development in the republic in the 1960-1970s in connection with the development of the fields of the Mangyshlak Peninsula - Uzen and Zhetybai. The rapid growth of oil production posed the task of transporting black gold through main oil pipelines to the country's oil refineries. To organize and ensure the transportation of Mangyshlak oil, on June 16, 1965, the Mangyshlak Oil Pipeline Department (MNU) was created as the Mangyshlak Main Oil and Gas Product Pipeline Department (UMNGPP) under the Mangyshlakneft association. It is one of the oldest and very important divisions of the oil transportation company of the Western branch of KazTransOil JSC.
As is known, oil from Kazakhstan fields is unique and differs in specific characteristics. Thus, Tengiz oil is characterized by a significant content of mercaptans (0.05%); Kumkol oil is light, but highly paraffinic (12-16%); Dossor oil is characterized by a high yield of distillate oils (40-60.5%) to oil; The viscosity of Karazhanbass oil is very high (150 mm2/s), which is ten times greater than the viscosity of Mangistau oil. In this regard, science and practice face the need to solve complex problems related to its transportation.
For example, to ensure the delivery of Uzen oil to the country’s oil refineries, the Uzen-Zhetybai-Shevchenko gas pipeline, which was under construction with a length of 141.6 km and a pipe diameter of 520 mm, was used. This made it possible to send the first train with Mangyshlak oil to the Guryev Oil Refinery on July 10, 1965, and on October 10, 1966, to send the first tanker of the Caspian Shipping Company Jebrail from the seaport of Aktau to the Volgograd Oil Refinery. In 1966, 1301.6 thousand tons of oil were shipped.
The determining factors when choosing one or another method of transporting oil are: pour point, temperature dependence of viscosity and density of oil. In the conditions of Mangyshlak, the method of track heating turned out to be the most effective. For this purpose, F-112 furnaces were installed on the Uzen-Shevchenko (Aktau) oil pipeline. In October 1966, the pumping of hot oil through the Uzen-Zhetybai-Shevchenko oil pipeline was mastered. One of the notable features of the route of this oil pipeline is that on the Zhetybay – Shevchenko section it crosses the Karagiye depression at an elevation of 132 m below the ocean level, 40 km long and 10 km wide. The formation of the depression is associated with the processes of leaching of salt-bearing rocks, with subsidence and karst processes that took place on the coast of the Caspian Sea.
On August 18, 1967, in connection with the rapid growth of oil production at Mangyshlak, a decree of the USSR Government was issued on construction in 1967-1970. main oil pipeline Uzen - Kulsary - Guryev - Kuibyshev with a length of 1232 km instead of the Mangyshlak - Privolzhsk - Ukraine oil pipeline previously provided for by the resolution of the Council of Ministers of the USSR of October 11, 1966. The first stage of the Uzen-Guriev oil pipeline was put into operation in August 1969. Eight heating points with G9P02V furnaces were installed along its route. The commissioning of the first stage made it possible to increase the volume of hydrocarbon raw materials pumping almost five times compared to 1966.
Between 1962 and 1970 The head of the Guryevsk Department of Main Petroleum Product Pipelines was V.V. Sharonov.
On June 2, 1971, on the basis of an order from the Minister of Oil Industry of the USSR, the Southern Directorate of Main Oil and Gas Pipelines was relocated from Guryev to Shevchenko. It was not easy in the Uzen fields in winter. The oil froze, clogged the wells with blood clots, they were pierced with hot water, steam, and other methods... But this did not fundamentally solve the problem. The commissioning of a new powerful “hot” oil pipeline made it possible to solve the problem of transporting Mangyshlak highly paraffinic and highly solidified oil at thirty degrees above zero. The construction of this oil pipeline made it possible to increase the level of oil production in Mangyshlak from 1.5 million tons in 1966 to 15 million tons in 1975.
To pump Mangyshlak oil to the Guryev Oil Refinery, the Shleif (1200 km) – Guryev Oil Refinery pipeline, 26 km long with a pipe diameter of 426 mm and a throughput capacity of 3.5 million tons of oil per year, was built in 1969.
Remembering historical dates, we remind our readers that on January 1, 1965, the Mangyshlakneftegazstroy trust began developing new oil field facilities and building oil workers’ settlements, which commissioned a complex of oil collection and transportation facilities, laid hundreds of kilometers inside the field communications, and maintenance facilities. reservoir pressure, group installations, power supply systems. The builders themselves lived in trailers, built prefabricated houses and barracks-type dormitories.
In a short time, builders and oil workers completed a huge amount of work to equip the oil field, which made it possible to begin production and transportation of “black gold” to factories. In 1967, the Zhetybai field was put into operation, and in 1970, the Tenge gas condensate field. Initially planned as an oil workers' settlement the size of one microdistrict, Uzen gradually turned into a city with several thousand people.
The modern Mangistau oil pipeline department is an important and large production division of the Western branch of KazTransOil JSC. MNU provides reception, transportation and shipment of crude oil, as well as the supply of fresh water to consumers in the Mangistau and Atyrau regions via the Astrakhan-Mangyshlak water pipeline. It drains oil from railway tanks at the Aktau gas pumping station, as well as loads oil into tankers in the port of Aktau. The current generation of oil pipeline workers worthily continues the work of their predecessors, thanks to which today KazTransOil JSC successfully achieves its goals.
Vekselberg earned 900 million from state orders of medical products in a year
Billionaire Viktor Vekselberg can safely be called the king of government procurement. His company Stentex sold 905 million rubles worth of coronary stents and catheters to the state in 2017.
Coronary stents and catheters are needed to treat acute coronary syndrome. In this syndrome, the artery that supplies the heart becomes blocked by a blood clot or goes into spasm. As a result, little blood flows to the heart. A stent is a mesh tube that is inserted into a vessel to restore blood flow.
Stentex is a joint venture between Vekselberg's Renova group of companies and the American company Medtronic. Production should be localized in Russia (in Skolkovo). The process is still underway. Therefore, Stentex now supplies the state with imported stents (model ST BRIG - Ireland, Russia, model Resolute Integrity - Ireland, USA, Russia, model ST Emercor and ST NC Dylacor - Mexico, model ST PROMPT - USA).
The Yuzhno-Khylchuyskoye field, one of the largest in the north of the Timan-Pechora basin, was discovered in 1981. More than 500 million barrels. - these are its oil reserves as of January 1, 2007. According to the classification of reserves, such a deposit is classified as large.
According to Lukoil's plans, the Yuzhnoye Khylchuyu project will be launched in early 2008, and by 2009 the field will reach a production level of 7.5 million barrels. per year (more than 150 thousand barrels per day). A total of 90 wells are planned to be drilled. In the first half of 2007, as part of a joint venture with the American ConocoPhillips, where the Russian company owns 70% and the partner - 30%, Lukoil has already put the Yuzhno-Khylchuyskoye field into development.
Lukoil and CononoPhillips intend to invest about $2 billion. Black gold will be transported via the South Khylchuyu - Varandey oil pipeline, and then for export through the Varandey terminal with a capacity of up to 16 million tons per year. This multi-level project involves the construction of a high-pressure gas pipeline, an energy center at the base oil collection point, as well as transformer substations and power lines.
The tender for the construction of power plants for the Yuzhnoye Khylchuyu - Varandey oil pipeline was won by the EFESk company, which already has successful experience in cooperation with oil and gas workers. Thus, in Saratov, the company built a line and a substation for gas workers; in Vysotsk, Leningrad Region, by order of OJSC Lukoil, it commissioned a substation at a terminal for transshipment of petroleum products.
In the harsh conditions of the Far North, not every company is able to take on such work, because materials and equipment can only be delivered here by winter road, and they have to work in extremely unfavorable weather conditions, in the permafrost region.
Despite this, EFESk provides decent quality and speed of work. Oil and gas workers have strict requirements; the customer’s engineering personnel are constantly present at the sites to monitor the impeccable implementation of technical standards. The customer for the work at the substations of the Yuzhnoye Khylchuyu - Varandey oil pipeline is Naryanmarneftegaz LLC.
Specialists of the EFESk company are laying a power transmission line with a capacity of 220 kV and installing two substations 220 kV–35 kV and 220 kV–10 kV. At the moment, all cable installations have been made, and the most modern equipment that meets all international standards has been installed on the energy devices of the oil pipeline. Completion of work is scheduled for February 2008.
The company owns a large fleet of equipment. After signing a contract with OJSC Lukoil, EFESk acquired new equipment for approximately 300 million rubles.
The powerful technical and personnel potential of JSC EFESk allows us to solve the most complex technical and organizational problems and deliver to the customer projects completed with impeccable quality on time. And work on the South Khylchuyu - Varandey oil pipeline is far from the only example.
During the construction of the North European Gas Pipeline, EFESk provides energy supply to gas pumping stations and other technological facilities. It would seem that compared to the construction of a gas pipeline, the task of laying power cables takes a back seat, but, nevertheless, this facility is very significant for the company.
Today, CJSC EFESk operates at the following facilities: aluminum production plant RUSAL-UK (reconstruction of the 500 kV substation Taishet); construction of a 500 kV substation "Taishet-2" and a 500 kV overhead line, customer - OAO Irkutsk Energo; Baltic Pipeline System (construction of 110 kV Nevskaya substation, 110 kV Kirishi substation and 110 kV overhead line), customer Transneft; gas pipelines "St. Petersburg - Yukki - state border" (construction of a 10 kV overhead line) and "Pochinki - Izobilnoye - Severostavropolskoye UGS", Saratov (construction of a 10 kV overhead line), customer Lentransgaz; oil terminal in Vysotsk (construction of the 110 kV Terminal substation and 110 kV overhead line), customer RPK Lukoil-II; power facilities in the Leningrad region (construction of power facilities under the program of reconstruction and development of new traction substations and overhead lines 35,110 kV), customer JSC Russian Railways.
Russia's new economic strategy is focused on the sustainable development of the country's energy capacities and provides for significant investments in the design and construction of electrical grid facilities to supply power to modernly equipped industrial, agricultural and public utility complexes. As you know, one of the objectives of the “Energy Strategy for the period until 2020” is to create conditions for the safe, efficient and sustainable functioning of the energy sector. Based on possible geopolitical situations and scenarios for the socio-economic development of the country, the “Energy Strategy” determines the trajectories and proportions of development of all energy sectors that are effective from the standpoint of the national economy: from geological exploration and production (production) of primary energy resources to the use of energy resources, inclusive, financial and economic conditions and institutional transformations in the economic sphere, functions and methods of public administration and the regulatory environment that need to be formed for the effective development of energy, specific tasks for government authorities to create conditions for the implementation of planned plans, a system of control and operational adjustment (monitoring) of implementation progress "Russian Energy Strategy". The “Energy Strategy” is guided by a forecast of the country’s long-term development with a growth rate of 5–6% per year and an increase in GDP by at least 3 times over the period under review.
Only those enterprises whose management provides them with leading positions in the country’s energy complex can participate most effectively in the implementation of large-scale government tasks. CJSC “EFESk” is one of such companies.
