In the XI-XII centuries. in Italy there was a rise in crafts and trade. By the end of the XII century. appeared in most cities production shops. A booming economic recovery led to trade activity, especially in the Mediterranean basin. The trade of Italian cities with the East brought fabulous profits. At the same time, competition for eastern markets began.
View in full size The most stubborn struggle took place between the city-republics of Venice and Genoa. At first, success accompanied Venice, which pressed Genoa on the Aegean Sea, but not for long. In 1261, according to the so-called Treaty of Nymphaeum, Genoa received strongholds on the Bosphorus, in Asia Minor and the Crimea for its help to Byzantium and ousted the Venetians for almost a century. In 1380 the Venetians defeated the Genoese fleet at Chioggia and re-established their hegemony in the Eastern Mediterranean and the Pontus. We do not enter into the ups and downs of the rivalry between Venice and Genoa on the Black Sea, but we note that next to the main characters of this historical action - warriors and merchants - there were always representatives of the Catholic Church, who reinforced the success of the sword with a cross and a sermon.
View in full size In the Black Sea region and on the Genoese dominated from the very beginning. Already in 1169, an agreement was concluded between the Genoese and Byzantium, where one of the paragraphs reads: “The ships of the Genoese merchants have the right to pass to all lands except Russia and Matrega, unless he (the emperor. - V.K.) is not in power permission there ”(Russia here is the coast of the Sea of \u200b\u200bAzov, Matrega -). This is the beginning of the infiltration of the Italians. Soon after 1204, Venetians appeared in the Black Sea ports, and Italian trade on Pontus grew. In 1234, the Dominican monk Ricardo landed at the mouth of the Kuban, on behalf of Pope Gregory IX, he traveled to Volga Bulgaria. Curious are his observations about Sychia, i.e. Zikhia and the city of Matrika, "where the prince and the people are Christians and have Greek books and sacred ones from them." There is no doubt that we are talking about Orthodox Christians. In 1238, Genoa and Venice conclude a truce and begin a real commercial expansion in the Crimea, and after the Treaty of Nymphaeum, which provided great benefits to the Genoese, the latter begin to develop the territory: they acquire a quarter in Caffa. In 1268, Pope Clement IV appointed the first bishop of Kaffa. In the 90s, the Italians already had strong positions in Kopario (Kop in the lower Kuban), Matrega (Taman), Sevastopol (Sukhum). According to N. Murzakevich, who referred to the Genoese author Girolamo Serra, Genoese merchants from Kiffa reached Dagestan in 1266 and started trading with the peoples living around the Caspian Sea, and also visited Tiflis.
According to the same data, Kaffa "managed" the Crimea, Taman, Kopa, Kutaisi, Sevastopol and Tana. Another 19th century writer De la Primode wrote that the peoples of the Kuban and the Caucasus went to the Genoese in Taman for trade, and the main item of trade was wax, for which there was a huge demand from churches and monasteries. It is not known on the basis of what data the author asserted that the Genoese developed silver mines in the Caucasus Mountains and traces of their work are visible to this day. Along the Kuban, the Genoese from the mouth of the river went upstream 280 miles and among the "rich and fertile country" founded a colony, which in 1427 was ruled by the consul. According to M.N. Kamenev, back in the 60s of the XIX century. traces of the supposedly Genoese road were visible, starting from Anapa and going through st. Tsarskaya to Kyafar, Big Zelenchuk, Marukh, Teberda and from there through the pass to Tsebelda and to the Terek.
On the lands, the largest Genoese colonies were Matrega and Kopa (lo-Kopa, Kopario) and the third - Mapa. Matrega was located on the site of the old Russian one (the current village of Taman). As before, it was a major port through which goods went to Turkey, Western Europe, and also to the North Caucasus to the Adyghe tribes. Matrega was well fortified. The population consisted mainly of Circassians, whose lands were adjacent to Matrega, Italians and Greeks. The Genoese took their ships up the Kuban River and, 280 Italian miles from its mouth, at the beginning of the 14th century, on the lands of the Adyghes, in the area of \u200b\u200bthe present city of Slavyansk-on-Kuban, founded the colony lo-Kopa. According to the charter of the colony, the Genoese paid tribute to the Adyghe princes in the form of “gifts to sovereign persons” with bokasin (thin linen fabric), certain pieces of which replaced money. Circassians, Italians, Greeks, Armenians lived in Kop. The population was mainly engaged in fishing, salting (salting) fish and preparing caviar, which was the main export item. Caviar was exported in barrels, weighing five cantars (61.5 kg). Along with fish and caviar, slaves (slaves) were an important export item. They were predominantly Circassians (Adygs), Tatars and Russians. Circassians and Circassians were valued most dearly. In addition, bread, sheep skins, furs, wax, honey, and fruits were exported.
According to the charter of the Genoese colonies, the consul at Lo Copa collected a fee from each ship for cargo and for anchoring. Persons engaged in fish plating and caviar preparation were obliged to pay 10 aspros (a silver coin) to the consul, and duties of 6 aspros were levied on each exported slave. The enrichment of the Genoese was also facilitated by barter with the Adyghes, in which the Genoese bought leather and other raw materials at low prices, which gave an unprecedented profit. The slave trade brought especially big income. The following goods were mainly imported to the Circassians through Kopa: salt, soap, fabrics (Italian cloth, thin linen - bokasin, bukaran), carpets, saber blades with coats of arms, drawings and inscriptions. They were especially valued by the Adyghe nobility. Enormous funds were made by the Genoese merchants, who mercilessly exploited the local Adyghe population.
The position of the Genoese in Matrega was precarious - they were surrounded by Adyghe tribes, the ordinary population of which, as a rule, was hostile to them; inhabitants against the rule of the Genoese. The Genoese settled in Matrega at the beginning of the 14th century, creating their own colony here. In 1419, Matrega was given to a representative of the famous Genoese family, Simon de Ghizolfi, thanks to the marriage of his son Vincenzo with the daughter and heiress of the Adyghe prince Berozokh. Thus, the Gizolfis were in double dependence: on the one hand, and mainly, on the Kafsky government, and on the other hand, on the Adyghe princes.
After Simon Gizolfi, Zaccaria Gizolfi ruled in Matrega, apparently the son of the Adyghe princess, whom Vincenzo Gizolfi married. Zakkaria, as he himself believed, was a tributary and vassal of the then neighboring Adyghe prince Kadibeldi. In 1457, the latter, being suzerain in relation to Zakkary Gizolfi, rebelled against him and captured the castle. The construction of a fortress (castle) in Matrega was carried out shortly before this with the financial assistance of Kafa. The document says that “taking advantage of this (the capture of Kadibeldi castle), the people of that area rebelled against Kafa and took possession of the aforementioned castle together with the princes of Zikhia.” Thus, this document testifies to the uprising of the Adyghe people against the Genoese and their princes. The uprising was crushed by soldiers sent from Kafa, who obliged Zakkaria Ghisolfi to keep hired soldiers from the garrison of Kafa in the fortress. Weapons were sent to Matrega. Kafa at that time was at the head of all the Genoese colonies in the North-Western Caucasus.
On the Black Sea coast, the Genoese colonies were Mala, on the site of the present Anapa, Kaloslimen (Baktiar) in the Tsemes Bay (Novorossiysk). Here the Genoese managed to establish a profitable exchange with the local tribes (the Black Sea Circassians). Other Genoese colonies were small trading posts and moorings for coastal navigation.
Genoese colonies existed in the Northwestern Caucasus until the end of the 15th century. After the capture of Constantinople by the Turks (1453), Turkish military penetration into the Caucasus begins. The Genoese colonies, with which the Adyghe tribes maintained fairly close trade relations, were ruined, and Turkish fortresses arose in their place.
To some extent, this information about the advance of the Genoese from the Crimea and Kopa into the depths is confirmed by indirect data of a legendary folklore nature and even by archeology. Thus, the French consul in the Crimea Xaverio Glavani in 1724 in Circassia saw crosses on the graves with Latin inscriptions, and in Karachay at the beginning of the 19th century. there was a cemetery Getmishbash, where many graves and tombstones were preserved, considered by the Karachays as Catholic or "Frankish". F. Dubois de Monpere reports a legend written down from General Engelhardt - the Franks or Genoese lived in all the valleys of the North Caucasus, "the dwellings of the Franks filled mainly the Kislovodsk valley, spread even beyond the Kuban River." With reference to P. S. Pallas, Dubois de Monpere indicates that the Rim-mountain near Kislovodsk served as a refuge for the Franks. The latter is quite possible. Let us also pay attention to the fact that the name of Italians, popular in the Caucasus, as "Franks" comes from the Byzantine name of the French mercenaries. Consequently, the term "Franks" denoting Europeans was borrowed by the Caucasians from the Byzantine Greeks.
Archaeological traces of the presence of the Genoese in the North Caucasus until the 15th century. varied, but not equally reliable. Among the latter, we include a Latin inscription on a crypt with a conical pyramidal roof, an entrance and a window in the upper reaches of the Majra River, which flows into the Kuban. The inscription read: “Fausta Fortuna” (“Fausta Fortune”) and “I ... CANTI” (name? - V.K.). But the reality of this inscription was later confirmed by no one. Another, also unverified, but actually existing monument is a stone statue of a Catholic monk in a characteristic long robe and a shaved head with a tonsure. The right hand blesses. The monument was fixed two kilometers from the village of Pregradnaya in the eastern Trans-Kuban region, quite in accordance with the Genoese road, about which M. N. Kamenev wrote. It is possible that some imported items from the Belorechensky burial mounds of the 14th-15th centuries are most directly related to the functioning of the mentioned road and the movement of goods along it: a gilded silver dish of Venetian work, Venetian glassware, a women's dressing gown made of lilac Italian axamitic velvet, etc. We are talking about the possession of Kremukh on the river already mentioned in the first chapter. White, headed by the ruler of Biberdi. There is no doubt about the trade exchange of the Adyghe Kremukh with the Italian colonies of the Black Sea region. To the same group of archaeological realities of the XIV century. Western European - Catholic circle can be attributed to bronze cross-vest with the image of the Crucifixion from the finds of M. N. Lozhkin on the Ilyichevsk settlement in the upper reaches of the river. Urup and Humara in the Kuban. Venetian glass, valued very highly on the international market, settled in the cemeteries of the XIV-XV centuries. West Ossetia - Digoria (for example, in Makhchesk), and this indicates the penetration of Italian goods to North Ossetia.
It is very likely that not all Italian imports of the XIV-XV centuries. From the North Caucasian archaeological materials, we can now correctly identify and attribute: for this it is necessary to know the original material culture, which is impossible in our conditions. This work remains for the future, like the work on Italian written sources relating to the Caucasus, in Italian repositories.
The pre-war article by E. S. Zevakin and N. A. Penchko “Essays on the history of the Genoese colonies in the Western Caucasus in the 13th-14th centuries” remains an important work on the problem of interest to us, although in a number of subjects it is outdated and does not correspond current state sources. Zevakin and Penchko cite some facts clearly documenting the expansion of Venice and Genoa in the North Caucasus. Thus, the authors found that on the territory between Tana (Azov) and Sevastopol (Sukhum) there were 39 Italian colonies, settlements and camps, of which the most important were Tana, Sevastopol, Kopa and Matrega, through which slaves, bread, wax and other products. The very interesting information of De la Primode that the Genoese went up the Kuban and mined silver ore in the Caucasus mountains is confirmed. There is a silver-lead deposit in the upper reaches of the Kuban; its development in Karachay was carried out until the 20th century. Therefore, the data on the mine workings of the Genoese in this area sound reliable. I do not rule out that thanks to the presence of the Genoese, the Sentinsky temple got its name, the etymology of which can go back to the Latin "Santa" - "holy", "holy". Since the Sentinsky temple is dedicated to the Mother of God and the Genoese probably knew this, in their mouths the temple and the peak itself with the temple could receive the popular name "Santa Maria".
At the same time, I do not insist on the proposed version, because there is a Karachai version of the etymology of "Senta". The decisive word here should belong to linguists.
E. S. Zevakin and N. A. Penchko testify to the ancient trade route that went along the valleys of the Kuban and Teberda to the Klukhorsky pass and further to Sevastopol; “Here the road ended through Rion to Imeretia and Georgia, which was often visited by Genoese merchants.” It is clear that this route was important for relations with the north of the Caucasus, and it is not by chance that a bishop was already in Sevastopol around 1330, and from 1354 a Genoese consul. As for Georgia, its rapprochement with the Catholic sovereigns and the Church of the West began in connection with the struggle with. In the XIII-XIV centuries. part of the Georgian and Armenian population converted to Catholicism, and in January 1240 Pope Gregory IX sent eight missionaries with a letter to the Georgian queen Rusudan and her son David V. As you can see, the Catholic expansion was carried out on a wide front, covering the entire Caucasus. In the south of the Caucasus Range, the Genoese also organized mining. There is information that in Abkhazia, in the gorge of the river. Gumista was a Genoese colony engaged in the development of lead-silver ore, and the number of mines reached 15. There was not only the introduction of trade into the depths of the Caucasus, but also the development of natural resources. All this meant the simultaneous resettlement of Italians in the Caucasus.
How far the movement of very active and dynamic Europeans to the east of the Caucasus went, is testified by Fanucci, to whom E. S. Zevakin and N. A. Penchko refer: “At the direction of Fanucci, the Genoese built and settled the settlement of Kubachi in Dagestan.” We agree that this may seem like a fantasy - an Italian settlement in the wilds of the Dagestan mountains! This is true, if only because the Kubachi have been known since the 9th century. Arab chroniclers called Zirikhgeran, i.e. "chain mail", metal craftsmen, and this is long before the appearance of Italians in the Caucasus. Fanucci's indication should be recognized as an exaggeration, the Genoese did not build Kubachi, but they could visit it, and more than once - the products of famous Kubachi metal craftsmen, especially gunsmiths, should have attracted the attention of European merchants. This becomes more likely against the background of other evidence of the presence of Italians in Dagestan.
It is important that the fact of the advance of the Genoese, and with them the Catholic missionaries, to the Caspian Sea and northern Dagestan (to Derbent) is beyond doubt. Josaphat Barbaro authentically narrates about the state of the Christian religion in this region of the Caucasus, which at that time was called Kaitaki: “The brothers of St. Francis (Franciscan monks. - V.K.) and one of our priests, a Latinist, went there. The peoples who live in these places are called kaytaki, as mentioned above, they speak a language unlike others, many of them are Christians, of which some believe in Greek, some in Armenian, and others in Catholic.
The quoted source is the only one that testifies that Orthodoxy has reached the borders of Dagestan (“a part believes in Greek”), because, as we see, there are no archaeological monuments of Orthodoxy here yet.
The last evidence of the arrival of the Dominican Catholic missionary Vincenzo in Dagestan dates back to 1486. After that, Christianity in Dagestan is rapidly losing ground to Islam. Dagestan finally becomes a Muslim country.
Researchers have already tried to answer these questions. M. K. Starokadomskaya believed that the Italians did not go further east than Solkhat in the Crimea in search of goods (and slaves were one of the main ones). The Genoese preferred to trade in those goods that were delivered to Kaffa or Solkhat by merchants of other nationalities. Apparently, Italian merchants personally participated in distant trading expeditions to eastern countries. It mattered that at the beginning of the XIV century. in Tabriz (Iran) the Genoese consulate functioned, and in the 20s of the XIV century. there was already a Genoese settlement in Zayton. Here it should also be noted that in the relations of the Genoese cities of the Crimea with the countries of the East, "the most significant role was played by the Caucasian merchants." Consequently, the movement was mutual, and the Genoese were constantly moving through Ciscaucasia to the east.
Very important information on the issue of interest to us is contained in the appeal of Pope John XXII to Khan Uzbek in 1330. The Pope recommends to the Khan Bishop Thomas Mankazol of Semiskat, who made many proselytes among the Alans of the Caucasus, Hungarians and Malchaites. Semiskata was identified with Shemakha, which seems doubtful, in any case, unproven. The conclusion that the mysterious Semiskata is Samarkand seems even more doubtful. Based on this localization of Semiskata, a map of the missionary actions of Thomas Mankazol was compiled, the Alans did not fall into the zone of Mankazol's operations on it, although they are located between the Lower Volga and the Don.
Stavropol archaeologist T.M. Minaeva testified that among the ruins of the city were found underwear metal crosses, stone tombstones with images of crosses, but they remained unpublished. Therefore, Christian antiquities of the XIV-XV centuries. from Majar remain anonymous, although the fact of the presence of Christians in this large city is beyond doubt.
Let us return to the localization of the city or the station of Michaha, passing in the bull of Boniface IX. The options for the location of this point were noted above, and the last of them - with. Mekegi in Dagestan. However, there is an opportunity to offer another option: Mikhakha was located in the Kum region, somewhat south of Madjar. On the map of the Caucasus by Georg Traitel in 1774, “verwustete Stadt Chacha” is placed in this place - the devastated city of Khakha, which phonetically and chronologically most corresponds to the desired city of Mikhakha. Archaeologically, this point has not yet been identified and explored. But the proposed version allows us to connect the well-known Roman Curia Mihaha with the process of introducing the Alans to Catholic Christianity in the 14th century. Thomas Mancasol missionaries. Due to this, probably, the repeated (after the Byzantine-Orthodox) conversion of the Alans to Christianity in 1404, the Dominican archbishop of Sultania in Iran, John de Galonifontibus, among the Christian peoples of "Great Tataria" names Alans and Yasses, i.e. aces-ossetians.
We have some archaeological data at our disposal that allow us to see this problem from a different angle and match the general historical background of the events of the second half of the 13th - early 15th centuries drawn above. with specific realities. In what will be stated below, not everything is an indisputable truth. But the reconstructions and interpretations we propose seem quite acceptable and worthy of attention, albeit ambiguous.
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Presentation on the topic: Italian colonization of the Black Sea coast of the Caucasus
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Italian colonization of the Black Sea coast of the Caucasus As a result of the Crusades in the XI-XIII centuries. in Italy such merchant republics as Genoa and Venice flourished economically. Pushing back the Arabs and the Byzantines, the Italian merchants took over the intermediary trade between Western Europe and the East. Soon they became such powerful trading powers that contemporaries rightfully called Genoa "the god of the seas", and Venice - the port city on the Adriatic Sea - "the queen of the Adriatic".
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In the XIII century. the weakening Byzantium was forced to open its Bosporus and Dardanelles for the passage of Italian ships from the Mediterranean to the Black Sea. This opened the way for them to the Crimea and the Black Sea coast of the Caucasus. Genoa and Venice competed for dominance on the Black Sea, which was expressed not only in acute trade competition, but also in armed clashes between them. More successful was the Republic of Genoa, which, by agreement with the Crimean khans, founded its first trading colony of Kafu (present-day Feodosia) in the Crimea. Having built a number of trading posts (settlements), the Genoese turned their attention to the Sea of \u200b\u200bAzov and the Black Sea coast of the Caucasus. On the site of the Russian Tmutarakan and the Byzantine Tamatarkha (or, as it was abbreviated, Matarkha), the Genoese founded at the end of the 13th century. port city of Matrega. Matrega was a fortified city inhabited by representatives of various tribes and peoples. It was not only a link between East and West, but also a center of trade with the surrounding mountain tribes.
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Buying wax, fish, furs and other goods from the highlanders, Italian merchants brought eastern and western goods to the North-Western Caucasus. Large Genoese colonies in the Kuban were Mapa (Anapa), Kopa (Slavyansk-on-Kuban), Balzamikha (Yeisk), Mavrolako (Gelendzhik) and others. In total, up to 39 settlements were built, different in size and importance, but mainly performing trade and economic tasks.
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The Genoese colonies did not ignore the Roman Catholic Church, which sent its missionaries here. These preachers tried to convert the Adyghe population, who professed Greek Christianity, to Catholicism. In Matrega, a Catholic diocese was even created, which led the process of converting the local population to Catholicism, but it failed to achieve great success.
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On the site of the ancient Gorgippia (Anapa) on the steep coast of the Black Sea, the Genoese erected their fortress - the Mapu trading post. It was from her that the then famous Genoese road to the upper reaches of the river went. Kuban, there it was divided into two: one road went to Abkhazia, the other to the Caspian Sea. The road at that time was well equipped, had transshipment bases and, obviously, was well guarded. The latter was associated with close relations between the Adyghe nobility and the administration of the Genoese colonies. The Genoese were vitally interested in the safety of their merchant caravans, which moved through the Caucasian territory. The Adyghe nobility saw great benefits in trade cooperation with the Genoese.
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The Adyghe elite was the main supplier of "living goods" - slaves, who were exported to the generally recognized centers of European trade: Genoa, Venice, Florence. Slaves were "obtained" as a result of endless inter-tribal wars, raids on neighboring peoples, and the capture of prisoners. Part ordinary people turned into slaves, unable to repay debts. The highest demand was beautiful girls and physically developed young men aged 15-17. Not only the Adyghe nobility and Genoese merchants profited from the slave trade, but also the administration of Italian settlements. For example, the consul of Kopa received 6 silver coins for each sold slave, which were called asprs. Information has come down to us about trade transactions that took place during the sale of slaves. So, when one of them was performed, it was written: "A Circassian slave was sold for 12 years for 450."
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The slave trade provided bad influence on the development of the Adyghe people, reducing the population at the expense of the youngest and most able-bodied people. The dominance of subsistence economy among the peoples of the North-Western Caucasus determined the predominance of barter trade over money circulation. The unit of exchange was usually a certain measure of fabric from which a man's shirt could be sewn. Fabrics brought by the Genoese, salt, soap, carpets, jewelry, and sabers were in great demand among the peoples of the North-Western Caucasus. But, using their unconditional dominance in the markets of the Black Sea, the Genoese merchants set extremely inflated prices for goods, deriving huge profits from trade with the local population. Moreover, high prices, for example, for such an important product as salt, were also set due to its strictly rationed importation. If more salt was imported (and this could reduce its price), then its excess was dumped into the sea. In difficult conditions, the trade of the Genoese themselves also went on. The widespread maritime piracy caused great damage to the Genoese merchants. Sea robbers not only robbed merchant ships, but also attacked coastal settlements and ports. Therefore, the Genoese were forced to hire guards to escort merchant ships and fortify their colony cities with stone walls and loopholes, and keep garrisons in them.
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The Venetians, who sought to gain a foothold in the Azov-Black Sea basin, also remained irreconcilable rivals of the Genoese. At the mouth of the Don, like the Genoese, they founded their trading post, the interests of which were often defended with arms in hand. At the turn of the XIV-XV centuries. the contradictions between the Italians and the mountain population intensified. Exorbitant taxes, cheating in commercial transactions, imposing Catholicism, capturing and selling people - all this caused irritation. The Adyghe princes also showed dissatisfaction with the infringement of their property rights. So, in 1457 Prince Kadibeldi even took Matrega by storm. To strengthen its position in Black Sea colonies, the Genoese administration resorted to the well-known "divide and rule" technique, set some princes against others, provoked them to rob their own tribesmen, promising rich goods in exchange for cattle and slaves. Beneficial deals also served to strengthen the Genoese influence in the colonies, including through marriage unions between representatives of the colonial administration and the Adyghe nobility.
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But in the second half of the XV century. the colonial rule of the Genoese Republic in the Black Sea and Sea of \u200b\u200bAzov was going to sunset. This was also evidenced by the fact that the management of the colony cities was transferred to a private bank. In 1453 under the blows of the Turks fell Constantinople - the capital of Byzantium, the turn was for the Italian colonies in the Crimea and the North-Western Caucasus. In the last quarter of the fifteenth century the Turks managed to capture all the Italian colonies on the Black and Azov Seas. The two-century stay of the Genoese in the Kuban is over. It played both a positive and (to an even greater extent) negative role in the life of local peoples. On the one hand, the Genoese introduced them to the advanced methods of economic relations and production of Eastern and Western European countries, expanding the circle of knowledge about the world. On the other hand, the unequal exchange of goods and products, tax oppression, the slave trade, and often simple robbery undermined the economy of the Circassians, restrained the growth of population and productive forces.
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From the charter for the Genoese colonies of 1449, the Consul in Kopa had to follow: "... so as not to bring more than the required amount of salt for consumption to the mentioned place. Moreover, we decide and prescribe that all merchants and other persons who bring salt to Capario [ Copa], they owe all the salt that they have left at the end of the work, that is, after salting the fish, bring it to Kafu or throw it into the sea, under a fine of 100 to 200 aspros for each barrel ... Also, that every skipper of a ship or The ship is obliged to pay the consul always a year from the cargo of the ship one aspr per barrel, and in addition for what is at anchor, 15 asprs from each ship ... Also, what the consul in Kopa can receive for each slave taken out from there, for six asprs ... ".
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Italian colonization of the Black Sea coast of the Caucasus
As a result of the crusades in the XI-XIII centuries. in Italy such merchant republics as Genoa and Venice flourished economically. Pushing back the Arabs and the Byzantines, the Italian merchants took over the intermediary trade between Western Europe and the East. Soon they became such powerful trading powers that contemporaries rightfully called Genoa "the god of the seas", and Venice - the port city on the Adriatic Sea - "the queen of the Adriatic".
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Cathedral of San Marco. Venice. 11th century
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Genoa in the XIII-XIV centuries
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In the XIII century. the weakening Byzantium was forced to open its Bosporus and Dardanelles for the passage of Italian ships from the Mediterranean to the Black Sea. This opened the way for them to the Crimea and the Black Sea coast of the Caucasus. Genoa and Venice competed for dominance on the Black Sea, which was expressed not only in acute trade competition, but also in armed clashes between them. More successful was the Republic of Genoa, which, by agreement with the Crimean khans, founded its first trading colony of Kafu (present-day Feodosia) in the Crimea. Having built a number of trading posts (settlements), the Genoese turned their attention to the Sea of \u200b\u200bAzov and the Black Sea coast of the Caucasus. On the site of the Russian Tmutarakan and the Byzantine Tamatarkha (or, as it was abbreviated, Matarkha), the Genoese founded at the end of the 13th century. port city of Matrega. Matrega was a fortified city inhabited by representatives of various tribes and peoples. It was not only a link between East and West, but also a center of trade with the surrounding mountain tribes.
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Bosphorus
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The Dardanelles Strait connects the Sea of Marmara and the Aegean.
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Buying wax, fish, furs and other goods from the highlanders, Italian merchants brought eastern and western goods to the North-Western Caucasus. Large Genoese colonies in the Kuban were Mapa (Anapa), Kopa (Slavyansk-on-Kuban), Balzamikha (Yeisk), Mavrolako (Gelendzhik) and others. In total, up to 39 settlements were built, different in size and importance, but mainly performing trade and economic tasks.
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Mapa (Anapa-modern view)
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Kopa (Slavyansk-on-Kuban-modern view)
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Balsamikha (Yeisk-modern view)
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Mavrolako (Gelendzhik-modern view)
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The Genoese colonies did not ignore the Roman Catholic Church, which sent its missionaries here. These preachers tried to convert the Adyghe population, who professed Greek Christianity, to Catholicism. In Matrega, a Catholic diocese was even created, which led the process of converting the local population to Catholicism, but it failed to achieve great success.
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On the site of the ancient Gorgippia (Anapa) on the steep coast of the Black Sea, the Genoese erected their fortress - the Mapu trading post. It was from her that the then famous Genoese road to the upper reaches of the river went. Kuban, there it was divided into two: one road went to Abkhazia, the other to the Caspian Sea. The road at that time was well equipped, had transshipment bases and, obviously, was well guarded. The latter was associated with close relations between the Adyghe nobility and the administration of the Genoese colonies. The Genoese were vitally interested in the safety of their merchant caravans, which moved through the Caucasian territory. The Adyghe nobility saw great benefits in trade cooperation with the Genoese.
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The Adyghe elite was the main supplier of "living goods" - slaves, who were exported to the generally recognized centers of European trade: Genoa, Venice, Florence. Slaves were "obtained" as a result of endless inter-tribal wars, raids on neighboring peoples, and the capture of prisoners. Some ordinary people turned into slaves, unable to repay their debts. Beautiful girls and physically developed boys aged 15-17 were in the greatest demand. Not only the Adyghe nobility and Genoese merchants profited from the slave trade, but also the administration of Italian settlements. For example, the consul of Kopa received 6 silver coins for each sold slave, which were called asprs. Information has come down to us about trade transactions that took place during the sale of slaves. So, when one of them was performed, it was written: "A Circassian slave was sold for 12 years for 450."
Slide 17
Venice
Slide 18
The slave trade had a negative impact on the development of the Adyghe people, reducing the population due to the youngest and most able-bodied people. The dominance of subsistence economy among the peoples of the North-Western Caucasus determined the predominance of barter trade over money circulation. The unit of exchange was usually a certain measure of fabric from which a man's shirt could be sewn. Fabrics brought by the Genoese, salt, soap, carpets, jewelry, and sabers were in great demand among the peoples of the North-Western Caucasus. But, using their unconditional dominance in the markets of the Black Sea, the Genoese merchants set extremely inflated prices for goods, deriving huge profits from trade with the local population. Moreover, high prices, for example, for such an important product as salt, were also set due to its strictly rationed importation. If more salt was imported (and this could reduce its price), then its excess was dumped into the sea. In difficult conditions, the trade of the Genoese themselves also went on. The widespread maritime piracy caused great damage to the Genoese merchants. Sea robbers not only robbed merchant ships, but also attacked coastal settlements and ports. Therefore, the Genoese were forced to hire guards to escort merchant ships and fortify their colony cities with stone walls and loopholes, and keep garrisons in them.
Slide 19
The Venetians, who sought to gain a foothold in the Azov-Black Sea basin, also remained irreconcilable rivals of the Genoese. At the mouth of the Don, like the Genoese, they founded their trading post, the interests of which were often defended with arms in hand. At the turn of the XIV-XV centuries. the contradictions between the Italians and the mountain population intensified. Exorbitant taxes, cheating in commercial transactions, imposing Catholicism, capturing and selling people - all this caused irritation. The Adyghe princes also showed dissatisfaction with the infringement of their property rights. So, in 1457 Prince Kadibeldi even took Matrega by storm. In order to strengthen its position in the Black Sea colonies, the Genoese administration resorted to the well-known "divide and rule" technique, set some princes against others, provoked them to rob their own tribesmen, promising rich goods in exchange for cattle and slaves. Beneficial deals also served to strengthen the Genoese influence in the colonies, including through marriage unions between representatives of the colonial administration and the Adyghe nobility.
Slide 20
Mouth of the Don
slide 21
But in the second half of the XV century. the colonial rule of the Genoese Republic in the Black Sea and Sea of \u200b\u200bAzov was going to sunset. This was also evidenced by the fact that the management of the colony cities was transferred to a private bank. In 1453 under the blows of the Turks fell Constantinople - the capital of Byzantium, the turn was for the Italian colonies in the Crimea and the North-Western Caucasus. In the last quarter of the fifteenth century the Turks managed to capture all the Italian colonies on the Black and Azov Seas. The two-century stay of the Genoese in the Kuban is over. It played both a positive and (to an even greater extent) negative role in the life of local peoples. On the one hand, the Genoese introduced them to the advanced methods of economic relations and production of Eastern and Western European countries, expanding the circle of knowledge about the world. On the other hand, the unequal exchange of goods and products, tax oppression, the slave trade, and often simple robbery undermined the economy of the Circassians, restrained the growth of population and productive forces.
slide 22
From the charter for the Genoese colonies of 1449, the Consul in Kopa had to follow: "... so as not to bring more than the required amount of salt for consumption to the mentioned place. Moreover, we decide and prescribe that all merchants and other persons who bring salt to Capario [ Copa], they owe all the salt that they have left at the end of the work, that is, after salting the fish, bring it to Kafu or throw it into the sea, under a fine of 100 to 200 aspros for each barrel ... Also, that every skipper of a ship or The ship is obliged to pay the consul always a year from the cargo of the ship one aspr per barrel, and in addition for what is at anchor, 15 asprs from each ship ... Also, what the consul in Kopa can receive for each slave taken out from there, for six asprs ... ".
View all slides
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Italian colonization of the Black Sea coast of the Caucasus As a result of the Crusades in the XI-XIII centuries. in Italy such merchant republics as Genoa and Venice flourished economically. Pushing back the Arabs and the Byzantines, the Italian merchants took over the intermediary trade between Western Europe and the East. Soon they became such powerful trading powers that contemporaries rightfully called Genoa "the god of the seas", and Venice - the port city on the Adriatic Sea - "the queen of the Adriatic".
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In the XIII century. the weakening Byzantium was forced to open its Bosporus and Dardanelles for the passage of Italian ships from the Mediterranean to the Black Sea. This opened the way for them to the Crimea and the Black Sea coast of the Caucasus. Genoa and Venice competed for dominance on the Black Sea, which was expressed not only in acute trade competition, but also in armed clashes between them. More successful was the Republic of Genoa, which, by agreement with the Crimean khans, founded its first trading colony of Kafu (present-day Feodosia) in the Crimea. Having built a number of trading posts (settlements), the Genoese turned their attention to the Sea of \u200b\u200bAzov and the Black Sea coast of the Caucasus. On the site of the Russian Tmutarakan and the Byzantine Tamatarkha (or, as it was abbreviated, Matarkha), the Genoese founded at the end of the 13th century. port city of Matrega. Matrega was a fortified city inhabited by representatives of various tribes and peoples. It was not only a link between East and West, but also a center of trade with the surrounding mountain tribes.
Slide 7
Slide 8
Slide 9
Buying wax, fish, furs and other goods from the highlanders, Italian merchants brought eastern and western goods to the North-Western Caucasus. Large Genoese colonies in the Kuban were Mapa (Anapa), Kopa (Slavyansk-on-Kuban), Balzamikha (Yeisk), Mavrolako (Gelendzhik) and others. In total, up to 39 settlements were built, different in size and importance, but mainly performing trade and economic tasks.
slide 10
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slide 12
slide 13
slide 14
The Genoese colonies did not ignore the Roman Catholic Church, which sent its missionaries here. These preachers tried to convert the Adyghe population, who professed Greek Christianity, to Catholicism. In Matrega, a Catholic diocese was even created, which led the process of converting the local population to Catholicism, but it failed to achieve great success.
slide 15
On the site of the ancient Gorgippia (Anapa) on the steep coast of the Black Sea, the Genoese erected their fortress - the Mapu trading post. It was from her that the then famous Genoese road to the upper reaches of the river went. Kuban, there it was divided into two: one road went to Abkhazia, the other to the Caspian Sea. The road at that time was well equipped, had transshipment bases and, obviously, was well guarded. The latter was associated with close relations between the Adyghe nobility and the administration of the Genoese colonies. The Genoese were vitally interested in the safety of their merchant caravans, which moved through the Caucasian territory. The Adyghe nobility saw great benefits in trade cooperation with the Genoese.
slide 16
The Adyghe elite was the main supplier of "living goods" - slaves, who were exported to the generally recognized centers of European trade: Genoa, Venice, Florence. Slaves were "obtained" as a result of endless inter-tribal wars, raids on neighboring peoples, and the capture of prisoners. Some ordinary people turned into slaves, unable to repay their debts. Beautiful girls and physically developed boys aged 15-17 were in the greatest demand. Not only the Adyghe nobility and Genoese merchants profited from the slave trade, but also the administration of Italian settlements. For example, the consul of Kopa received 6 silver coins for each sold slave, which were called asprs. Information has come down to us about trade transactions that took place during the sale of slaves. So, when one of them was performed, it was written: "A Circassian slave was sold for 12 years for 450."
slide 17
slide 18
The slave trade had a negative impact on the development of the Adyghe people, reducing the population due to the youngest and most able-bodied people. The dominance of subsistence economy among the peoples of the North-Western Caucasus determined the predominance of barter trade over money circulation. The unit of exchange was usually a certain measure of fabric from which a man's shirt could be sewn. Fabrics brought by the Genoese, salt, soap, carpets, jewelry, and sabers were in great demand among the peoples of the North-Western Caucasus. But, using their unconditional dominance in the markets of the Black Sea, the Genoese merchants set extremely inflated prices for goods, deriving huge profits from trade with the local population. Moreover, high prices, for example, for such an important product as salt, were also set due to its strictly rationed importation. If more salt was imported (and this could reduce its price), then its excess was dumped into the sea. In difficult conditions, the trade of the Genoese themselves also went on. The widespread maritime piracy caused great damage to the Genoese merchants. Sea robbers not only robbed merchant ships, but also attacked coastal settlements and ports. Therefore, the Genoese were forced to hire guards to escort merchant ships and fortify their colony cities with stone walls and loopholes, and keep garrisons in them.
slide 19
The Venetians, who sought to gain a foothold in the Azov-Black Sea basin, also remained irreconcilable rivals of the Genoese. At the mouth of the Don, like the Genoese, they founded their trading post, the interests of which were often defended with arms in hand. At the turn of the XIV-XV centuries. the contradictions between the Italians and the mountain population intensified. Exorbitant taxes, cheating in commercial transactions, imposing Catholicism, capturing and selling people - all this caused irritation. The Adyghe princes also showed dissatisfaction with the infringement of their property rights. So, in 1457 Prince Kadibeldi even took Matrega by storm. In order to strengthen its position in the Black Sea colonies, the Genoese administration resorted to the well-known "divide and rule" technique, set some princes against others, provoked them to rob their own tribesmen, promising rich goods in exchange for cattle and slaves. Beneficial deals also served to strengthen the Genoese influence in the colonies, including through marriage unions between representatives of the colonial administration and the Adyghe nobility.
slide 20
slide 21
But in the second half of the XV century. the colonial rule of the Genoese Republic in the Black Sea and Sea of \u200b\u200bAzov was going to sunset. This was also evidenced by the fact that the management of the colony cities was transferred to a private bank. In 1453 under the blows of the Turks fell Constantinople - the capital of Byzantium, the turn was for the Italian colonies in the Crimea and the North-Western Caucasus. In the last quarter of the fifteenth century the Turks managed to capture all the Italian colonies on the Black and Azov Seas. The two-century stay of the Genoese in the Kuban is over. It played both a positive and (to an even greater extent) negative role in the life of local peoples. On the one hand, the Genoese introduced them to the advanced methods of economic relations and production of Eastern and Western European countries, expanding the circle of knowledge about the world. On the other hand, the unequal exchange of goods and products, tax oppression, the slave trade, and often simple robbery undermined the economy of the Circassians, restrained the growth of population and productive forces.
slide 22
From the charter for the Genoese colonies of 1449, the Consul in Kopa had to follow: "... so as not to bring more than the required amount of salt for consumption to the mentioned place. Moreover, we decide and prescribe that all merchants and other persons who bring salt to Capario [ Copa], they owe all the salt that they have left at the end of the work, that is, after salting the fish, bring it to Kafu or throw it into the sea, under a fine of 100 to 200 aspros for each barrel ... Also, that every skipper of a ship or The ship is obliged to pay the consul always a year from the cargo of the ship one aspr per barrel, and in addition for what is at anchor, 15 asprs from each ship ... Also, what the consul in Kopa can receive for each slave taken out from there, for six asprs ... ".
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Lesson type: Learning new material.
Technology problem-based learning, collaboration.
Methods: verbal, visual, interactive, personifying.
The purpose of the lesson: to form the moral and patriotic consciousness of students.
Lesson objectives: achieving the following results:
- personal- to develop the ability to evaluate historical events from the standpoint of humanistic moral values, to form an idea of people's lives in the Middle Ages.
- subject- develop the ability to extract and critically evaluate information, systematize historical information, develop creative potential students.
- metasubject- to cultivate a sense of patriotism and pride in their country and people.
Equipment: Microsoft PowerPoint presentation”, interactive whiteboard, photos of Venice, Genoa, Italian merchants.
Preliminary preparation: the children learned poems about their homeland, drew pictures corresponding to the theme.
Organizational structure of the lesson
I. Organizational moment
Greetings.
Guys, let's go with you, define the topic and purpose of our lesson.
II. Presentation of the topic and objectives of the lesson.
That's right guys.
Today we will talk about the Italian colonies of the Black Sea
Let's get acquainted with the life of medieval colonists.
III. Knowledge update.
Guys, remember from the course of general history the chronological framework of the Middle Ages.
That's right guys.
Teacher/slide 2/
The chronological framework of the Middle Ages is different for different continents and even individual countries. On the territory of the North Caucasus, the beginning of the Middle Ages is associated with the era of the Great Migration of Peoples and, above all, with the aggressive campaigns of the Huns.
But today we will consider the XIII-XV centuries.
What happened at that time on the shores of the Black Sea.
Students (students justify their answers)
Teacher/slide 3/
Here is the name of the colonies that were located on the coast of the Caucasus.
Uch-Xia read
Monlaco, Kopa, Matrega, Mapa, Kafa, Sebastopolis, Bata.
Teacher
How many of you have heard or read about these territories?
See what interesting names of settlements. What do you know about these settlements?
Teacher
Guys, we live with you in the Krasnodar Territory, we have a rest on the shores of the Black Sea, and we should know the history of our region. And today at the lesson we explore and learn a lot of new things about our region.
But in order to continue our lesson, you need to remember such terms as colony and colonization.
Students answer.
- The colony is a settlement founded outside the state
- Colonization– development and settlement of new territories inside or outside their country
Teacher. /slide 4/
Let's check if you answered correctly
Well done! All right! Let's take a look at the picture before you.
Students look at and comment on the drawing.
Teacher/slide 5/
Italian merchants in the Middle Ages penetrated the Black Sea region. Colonization was accompanied by rivalry between the two major cities– Venice and Genoa
Map work./slide 6/
Guys, look at the map. What peninsula are Venice and Genoa on?
What is the name of the country?
Look closely, what thing does the peninsula look like?
Correctly. Well done (the peninsula is Apennine, the country is Italy, the thing that the peninsula looks like is a boot)
Teacher/slide 7-8/
Trade rivalry between Venice and Genoa lasted until the second half of the 13th century. Well, the Genoese managed to change the situation. In 1260, they helped to restore the Byzantine Empire and Emperor Michael Palaiologos concluded an agreement with the authorities of Genoa, according to which merchants from Genoa received the right to sail and trade in the Black and Azov Seas. Freed from certain taxes, the Genoese increased their income. The process of colonization of the Black Sea and Azov regions was accompanied by a sharp competitive struggle both between Genoa and Venice, as well as between the factories founded by them. In the 60s of the XIII century, Genoa settled in Kaffa, which became the largest port and shopping mall in the Black Sea region. The Venetians set up trading posts in Soldaya (now the city of Sudak in the Crimea). In total, in the Crimea, the Sea of \u200b\u200bAzov and the Caucasus, there were about 40 Italian trading posts-colonies.
Who ruled these colonies, and who lived in these territories?
Students.
The colonies were ruled by consuls - bayolos, elected in the metropolis for 1-2 years. With the consuls in trading posts, merchants-nobiles (citizens of the metropolis) and citizens of the trading post and elected city councils ruled. The citizens of the factories were mostly Italians.
The composition of the population was extremely diverse: Greeks, Armenians, Russians, Jews, Tatars. They had certain legal rights, were free to practice religion, performed military and civil service, and participated in joint trading companies. Periodically, the colonies were ruined by the Tatars.
The most important Genoese colonies in the Caucasus were Matrega, Kopa, Mapa and others.
Teacher
Why did the Genoese end up on the shores of the Black and Azov Seas?
Brainstorm/Slide 9/
Guys, before you are the goods that the Genoese exported and imported to the Black Sea coast.
Name the goods you brought.
List the goods that were exported from the Black Sea colonies.
And whether all the goods that are in front of you could be purchased in the markets of the medieval Caucasus.
Uch-Xia answer.
Products that imported -
- From Germany and Italy - cloth.
- From Greece - oil and wine
- From Asian countries - spices, musk, precious stones.
- From Africa - ivory
exported - grain, salt, leather, furs, wax, honey, timber, fish, caviar, slaves
All goods were delivered only by sea?
Teacher/slide 10/
That's right guys. Goods were delivered not only by sea but also by land. And this way was from China to the Crimea and from the Crimea to China.
Teacher/slide 11/
There is a picture in front of you. Look at it and say what goods the merchants brought for sale.
Among trading operations The slave trade occupied a special place among the Genoese. Prisoners of war, victims of sea robbery, the poor who failed to pay off their debts on time became slaves. The slave trade was a very profitable occupation and brought income to everyone who came into contact with it.
Work on the text of the source / slide 12 /
And now the guys will go on a trip / slide 13 /
In front of you is a map - this is our guide that will help you uncover the secrets of the names of the settlements.
Look closely at the map.
Tell me in which settlement all trade routes connect.
What state did Feodosia previously belong to?
Correctly. And now as part of which state.
Correctly. Well done!
Fizkultminutka.
Student/slide 13/
Kafa (Feodosia). In 1266, the representatives of Genoa, having agreed with the Golden Horde, received Kafa (modern Feodosia in the Crimea) in possession. It became the center of the Black Sea colonies. The Golden Horde made predatory raids on Kafa and other settlements. From Kafa, other trading settlements were administered through appointed officials - consuls. Consuls were only in the most important trading centers. (Kopa, Tana, Sebastopolis). The consul did not receive a salary and lived on part of the funds coming from the collection of duties and fines. The Genoese involved the Circassian nobility in managing the colonies. To strengthen their position, the colonialists used marriages with representatives.
Student/slide 14/
Matrega (Taman) The largest Genoese colony in the Northwestern Caucasus. It was located on the Taman Peninsula (on the site of the former Tmutarakan). It was an important port in which there was an overload from large ships that were not capable of sailing on the Sea of \u200b\u200bAzov and rivers. Matrega was a fortified city inhabited by representatives of various tribes and peoples. The Bosphorus Strait and the Dardanelles Strait connect the Sea of Marmara and the Aegean. Buying wax, fish, furs and other goods from the highlanders, Italian merchants brought Eastern and Western goods to the Caucasus. A Catholic diocese was created in Matrega, which led the process of the transition of the local population, but it failed to achieve great success
Student/ slide 15 / Lo-Kopa or Kopario, and today the city is Slavyansk-on-Kuban
The population of this colony was engaged in fishing, salting fish and cooking caviar. Caviar and delicacy fish species were purchased by foreign merchants. It is also known that the Genoese kept fish rows in the capital of the Byzantine Empire. In the XIV century. Kopa has become the largest center of fish trade in the Northern and Eastern Black Sea region. The Consul of Copa had the right to mint coins. The charter of the colonies determined the basic rules of trade. The price of fish was jointly set by the consul, merchants and local nobility.
Work according to the text of the source / slide 16 / “From the charter of the Genoese colonies”
Questions:
1. What ensured the high profits of the Genoese merchants?
2. What was the reason for the high price of salt and how was it possible to maintain it?
Student/slide 17-18/
On the site of ancient Gorgipia (Anapa) on the steep coast of the Black Sea, the Genoese erected their fortress - the Mapu trading post. It was from her that the then famous Genoese road to the upper reaches of the river went. Kuban. The road at that time was well equipped, had transshipment bases and, obviously, was well guarded. The Genoese were vitally interested in the safety of their merchant caravans, which moved through the Caucasian territory. The Adyghe nobility saw great benefits in trade cooperation with the Genoese
Repetition and consolidation of knowledge./slide 19/
Exercise. You have envelopes with the task on the tables. You now have to correlate the name of the colonies with the name of the cities of modern times. For example, Kafa - Feodosia, etc.
Reflection. /slide 20/
- What did I learn in the lesson?
- What have I learned
- What else would I like to know?
Homework.
Write an essay "The adventure of a trading caravan on the way from Genoa to Cafu."
