The assertion of the Italians in the region was accompanied for decades by a sharp struggle between various forces that claimed influence here: Byzantium, the Crimean Khanate, Genoa, Venice, Pisa, Amalfi. As a result of fierce rivalry with the Venetian Republic, which founded at the beginning of the XII century. colonies in the form of trading posts on the southern coast of the Crimean peninsula, Genoa became the monopoly owner of the sea trade routes along the Crimean coast. The interest of Italian merchants in the Black Sea was caused primarily by the fact that the traditional trade routes between the East and Europe (passing mainly through the Mediterranean) were disrupted as a result of the Mongol-Tatar conquest of the world. The main importance was acquired by the northern transit routes passing through the Central and Central Asia on the right sea. The Genoese, pushed aside by the Venetians from the Black Sea markets, did not want to put up with such a situation. They agreed to conclude an alliance treaty with the Empire of Nicaea - the Greek state in Asia Minor, which fought against the crusaders and the Venetians for the restoration of the Byzantine Empire. The Treaty of Nymphaeum between the Nicaean emperor Michael (Paleologue) and Genoa was concluded in March 1261, and in July of the same year, Greek troops captured Constantinople. The Crusaders were expelled from Byzantium, the place of the Venetians in the Black Sea trade was taken by the Genoese. In exchange for the provision of material and military assistance, Genoa received exclusive right trade on the Black Sea, unimpeded passage through the Black Sea straits (connecting the Black Sea with the Mediterranean), duty-free trade in all the Possessions of the empire, etc. In addition, the Genoese achieved a ban on Venetians trading here.
However, it was necessary to negotiate with the Golden Horde, which was in charge in the Crimea. In the middle of the 1260s. the Genoese founded in Cafe (Feodosia), then a small Greek-Alanian village, their trading post, also acquiring, in agreement with the ulus emir Mangu Khan, the nearby lands in their ownership. So, in the 1260-1270s. active Genoese colonization of the Black Sea coast begins. First, the southern coast of Crimea is colonized. Trading posts appear in Bosporo (Kerch), Chembalo (Balaklava). Several colonies were founded in the North-Eastern Black Sea region - Kopa (Slavyansk-on-Kuban), Matrega (Taman village), Mala (Anapa), Sebastopolis (Sukhumi), Kalolimen (modern Novorossiysk district), Mavrolako (Gelendzhik ). Tana (Azov), which had the richest fish market and was of strategic importance in the system of trade points lying between Europe and Asia, was of the greatest importance for maintaining the position of the Genoese in the Sea of Azov. Bread, salted fish and caviar were massively exported from Tana - the main ooraz to Constantinople and Genoa. Tana had a huge economic importance- a transit route to Central Asia and the Far East ran through it.
Kafa became the political and economic center of all the Genoese colonies, the center of all Black Sea (transit) trade. The Genoese behaved like at home on the Black Sea, completely driving out the Greek merchants from there. The title of the Kafa consul - "the head of Kafa and the entire Black Sea" - carried a very real content. Kafa ruled other colonies through its representatives - commandants and consuls. It should be noted that all the colonies of Italians in the Crimea and the Northern Black Sea region were multinational in composition. Even in the Cafe, the Genoese were a tiny minority. In Soldai, Cembalo, Matrega, Kop, the Greek and local (Circassian) population predominated. It should also be noted the Slavic, Armenian, Jewish element of the population of the colonies. Over time, the differentiation of the Genoese colonies takes place, among which the following can be distinguished: 1) retaining commercial importance (Kafa, Tana); 2) having the value of fortresses and centers of agricultural districts (Soldaya, Chembalo); 3) colonies, in which power was actually exercised by local (Circassian or Genoese) princes, despite the presence of officials from Kafa (Mala, Barir, Matrega, Kopa). Given the local conditions, the importance and the apparent remoteness of the colonies, Kafa was forced to pursue a flexible policy regarding recognition in some lz them a great degree of independence. One of the features of some Italian colonies was their dependence not only on Kafa, but also on local rulers - both of Italian and local (Circassian) origin. For example, since 1419, Matrega was owned by the noble Genoese Gizolfi. One of them, V. Gizolfi, became related to his daughter and heiress prince from the local (Circassian) family of Biberdi-Biha-Khanum, turned this extremely important colony for Kafa into a semi-independent fief of his family.Kafa, aware of the dangerous consequences for itself of the separatism of the local prince, went, however, to the support of Gizolfi. Matrega had for the Italians located on the shore of the Kerch Strait, it ensured uninterrupted communication of the colonialists with the Bosporo, located in the Crimea, and from there with the other Crimean possessions of Genoa.Bata (Barir) was owned in the second half of the 15th century by the noble Genoese its inhabitants paid tribute to Kafe.Kopa was ruled by a local Circassian prince.When one of its rulers erected a fortress in his domain, then the consul of Kafa was ordered by order from Genoa to take urgent measures to destroy it.
The fragility of Kafa’s position in Kopa is also evidenced by the fact that, according to the Mouth of the Genoese colonies in the Black Sea in 1449, the consul of Kopa had to “bring gifts to sovereign persons from Zikhia” upon his arrival there, i.e. noble to the Circassians. The population of the colony was engaged in salting fish and cooking! caviar, as well as the sale of slaves. Fair trade flourished in Cope (from late April to mid-May). Until the consul of Copa sets the price n; none of the merchants had the right to buy fish - under the threat of confiscation
goods. Strictly punished were those who started trading before the arrival of the consul to the colony, or who prepared caviar and salted fish at the same time. By the way, no one had the right to take salt at the mercy. The post of consul in Copa was very advantageous, it was given as a reward for services to Genoa. The colony of Mala did not have a consulate and trade there was negligible. Mavrolako was the most convenient port of the Circassian coast of the Black Sea, willingly visited by merchants. Bosporo was under the rule of the Circassian
prince, representing a principality of a semi-feudal type.
The administrative apparatus created by the Genoese gradually became more complex and expanded - as their entire colonial system on the Black Sea expanded. Already in 1290, Kafa had its charter, which essentially determined the entire internal organization and the device of the Black Sea colonies, for which Kafa was administrative center. Then new statutes appeared, the most extensive of which dates back to 1449. Formally, the administration was of a republican nature. At the head of the entire colonial system was the consul, appointed by the council of the Doge of Genoa for a period of one year. Almost all power belonged to him, including the right to torture, determine the price of goods, etc. However, his activities were divided and even controlled by colonial institutions - a board of trustees, a council of elders, two financial managers, and a trading committee. A special position was occupied by 16 general syndics (judges), who administered the court and reprisals. They had the right to bring even the consul to trial. All this Genoese administration, corrupt in its essence, patronized the merchant and feudal nobility, often to the detriment of the prestige of Genoa itself. Even positions of responsibility such as consuls of Tana and Copa were sold with the permission of the bank of San Giorgio by the consulate of Kafa.
The position of the Italians in the region has never been secure. Kafa itself was destroyed several times by the Tatars - in 1298, 1308, and the Genoese were forced to flee. In the reign of Khan Uzbek (1312-1342), the Genoese reappeared on the shores of the Feodosia Gulf. In 1313, an embassy from Genoa was sent to the Horde, agreeing with the khan on the conditions for the return of the Genoese to the ruins of Kafa, and in 1316 the resurgent city received new charter. By the middle of the XIV century. Kafa became a powerful fortress, and in the 1380s. the outer line of defense of the city was erected. Despite the complication of relations with the Tatars (since 1434, the Genoese began to pay constant tribute to the Crimean Khan Hadji-Girey, their worst enemy), Genoa goes to great expense to restore its presence in the Crimea. After all, no doubt big income she received from trade with the local population, the export to Europe of colonial goods, slaves. The Genoese made attempts to develop silver mines in the Caucasus mountains. Exploring local lands, they> spa-telno put them on the map.
Still Xlli's papers. they talk about the exchange of goods with the Circassians at the mouth of the Kuban, about the fair in Kop. In exchange for caviar and fish, the local population received coarse fabrics, and the Genoese received huge profits, which sources mention even in the 16th century. The following goods were exported to Europe: salted fish, caviar, timber, grain (millet, barley, wheat), fruits, vegetables, wine, meat, furs, wax, leather, resin, hemp. Numerous documents testify to the importance of grain supplies from the colonies. When trade through Tana and Kafa was interrupted in the early 1340s, Byzantium soon developed a serious shortage of rye and salt. In the contracts of Kafa for the XIII century. often appear large transports of rye, barley and millet sent to Trebizond and Sam-sun. The grain crops of the Alans and Circassians were quickly sold by the Tatars in the barren Crimea. In exchange for goods provided by the Circassians, the Genoese offered them salt, rice, mustard, spices, cotton fabrics, raw cotton, soap, incense, including incense, ginger (interfering with honey, the Circassians brewed a strong drink). The Circassian nobility willingly acquired expensive varieties of fabrics, luxury items - carpets, jewelry, art glass, ornate weapon. Trade was predominantly of an exchange nature, monetary relations hardly penetrated into this area (the asprs served the Genoese mainly for trade with the Tatars). Bokassin acted as a unit of exchange - a measure of simple fabric sufficient for sewing one men's shirt. Trade was conducted on an unequal basis, since the Circassians did not know the true value of the goods offered to them for exchange. Cooperating with the local elite, the merchants did not stand on ceremony with ordinary people. So, the Circassians living in Kop were forced by the Genoese "to conclude profitable deals for themselves under the threat of depriving them of salt, so necessary for salting fish. One of the paragraphs of the Charter of 1449 ordered all unused salt in Kop to be brought back to Kafa or thrown into the sea under the threat of a large fine in case of non-compliance with the order.The population of the colonies of the North-Western Caucasus, in addition, was serving a tax duty in favor of Genoa, trying to get rid of it.On the contrary, the colonialists encouraged the local nobility with rich gifts (Genoa allocated for this special means), invited to the court of the consul Kafa. The princes of Mapa and the Taman Peninsula were subsidized by an annual sum from Genoa, naturally, in order to keep them dependent. Trying to strengthen their position, the Genoese acted hand in hand with papal Rome in an attempt to catholicize the local population - largely Orthodox.
Anxiety about the separatism of the princes, the possible uprisings of the Circassians never left the owners of the colonies. The charter of 1449 forbade the Genoese to be related to the local population. In the column of the expenses of the Bank of San Giorgio on the colonies, the sums allocated for the protection of Genoese merchants, as well as for the defense of Genoese castles on the territory of the colonies themselves, constantly appear. The rulers of Kopa, for example, instead of equipping and sending Circassian warriors to serve in Kafa, they themselves took part in the attack of the same Circassians on Genoese merchants who were going to Kopa for trade. From time to time, military vessels had to be sent from Kafa to repel attacks by Circassian corsairs. Second half of the 15th century - the time of incessant unrest, unrest, uprisings of the population of the colonies, held under the general slogan - "Against Kafa!". The colonial system, the meaning of "functioning" of which was to obtain the greatest possible benefit from least risk and costs - due to the merciless exploitation of the population of the colonies - showed at that time its complete failure.
A shameful page in the history of the Italian presence in the North Caucasus is the slave trade, which is encouraged in every possible way by Genoa and the Kafa administration. In particular, the consul of Kopa could receive 6 asprs for each slave taken out of there. Considering the fact that the consul, not receiving a salary, lived on income only from duties and fines, one can imagine with what zeal the official encouraged the captive selling. The consul of Kafa, who controlled the slave trade in the city, also filled not only the local treasury, but also his own pocket. Most of the slaves sold in the Cafe were of Caucasian origin: Circassians, Lezgins, Abkhazians. They also traded in slaves from among the Georgians and Russians. They bought slaves from the Tatars and the Adyghe nobility, who captured prisoners during intertribal strife. The Genoese dared to capture the Tatars as well, for which they took revenge more than once and even destroyed Kafa at the end of the 13th century. The largest centers Slave trade in the Caucasus were Kafa, Kopa, Tana, Sebastopolis, and Kafa retained the position of the largest of them in the 16th-18th centuries. Part of the slaves remained in the colonies, but the vast majority of them were exported to the countries of Europe, Byzantium, Asia Minor, and North Africa. Thousands of slaves were brought to Venice and Genoa, and the market was always full of them. Women predominated, because in Italy, in contrast to Muslim countries, the demand was greater for female slaves. The Egyptian sultans replenished their troops and harems with slaves, and new domestic slaves appeared in the homes of noble Europeans. Having put the slave trade on a grand scale, the Italians extracted huge profits from it. A significant share of the responsibility for the development of the slave trade lies, undoubtedly, with the Circassian nobility, who actively participated in the raids on their own Circassian neighbors.
Mid 15th century - a turning point in the history of the Genoese colonies. In 1453 the Ottoman Turks captured Constantinople. The Byzantine Empire ceased to exist, and the sea route connecting the Genoese colonies on the Black Sea with the mother country was taken under control by the Turks. The Republic of Genoa faced a real threat of losing all its Black Sea possessions, and it hurried to sell the colonies to the bank of San Giorgio with a center in Genoa in the same year. By that time, this powerful financial institution already had the right to mint coins, collect most taxes in the possessions of Genoa, control Genoese customs, and have a monopoly on the operation of salt mines. Having received the right to manage and inalienable possession of the Black Sea colonies for a low price (5500 livres), the bank only completed with this act the process of gradual absorption of the Genoese possessions. Already in June 1454, warships of the Ottoman Turks appeared on the Kafa roadstead. They left only after the Turks, having robbed several settlements on the Crimean and Caucasian coasts, obtained from Kafa a promise to pay them an annual tribute. It was clear that the days of Italian rule on the Black Sea coast were numbered. But the mortal blow to the colonies was delivered only after the Ottoman Turks concluded a truce with Venice (1474). On May 31, 1475, a Turkish squadron approached the Cafe. Kafa, which had powerful fortifications, surrendered after a few days. In the second half of 1475, the Turks made a campaign towards the Don and the Sea of \u200b\u200bAzov, capturing Matrega, Kopa, Tana, and others. Kafa, where the Sultan's governor was located, became the center of Ottoman possessions in the Black Sea region.
So ingloriously ended the dominion of Genoa in the Crimea and the Northern Black Sea region. Striving for the fastest enrichment, mercilessly exploiting the population of the colonies, the Genoese failed to create a solid foundation for their presence in the region. Quite often, the reports of the consuls spoke of clashes, strife with local tribes. "Peaceful" or "friendly" treaties, to which the Circassians were forced by force, were almost immediately violated by them. The policy of the Circassian nobility in relation to the Kafsky administration was distinguished by insidiousness. There are separate positive consequences of the long-term presence of Italians in the Caucasus - the Adyghes become known in Europe, since their lands are mapped by the Genoese; the local population of the colonies, including the Adyghe, gets acquainted with the achievements of European culture; the development of trade contributed to the well-being of a certain part of the Adyghe society. In general, however, Italian colonization had negative consequences for the peoples of the North Caucasus. Attempts to convert the local population to Catholicism were often violent. The slave trade bled the Circassians, depressingly affecting their gene pool. Encouraging this "trade", the Genoese thereby kindled new clashes between the Circassians (since the nobility "was interested in capturing prisoners). The predatory nature of trade delayed the growth of the productive forces of the native population, based on shameless deceit, monopoly and the absence of an alternative choice for the Circassians .
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The presentation on the topic "Colonization of the Black Sea coast of the Caucasus by Italians" (Grade 7) can be downloaded absolutely free of charge on our website. Project subject: History. Colorful slides and illustrations will help you keep your classmates or audience interested. To view the content, use the player, or if you want to download the report, click on the appropriate text under the player. The presentation contains 22 slide(s).
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As a result of the crusades in the XI-XIII centuries. in Italy such merchant republics as Genoa and Venice flourished economically. Pushing back the Arabs and the Byzantines, the Italian merchants took over the intermediary trade between Western Europe and the East. Soon they became such powerful trading powers that contemporaries rightfully called Genoa "the god of the seas", and Venice - the port city on the Adriatic Sea - "the queen of the Adriatic".
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In the XIII century. the weakening Byzantium was forced to open its Bosporus and Dardanelles for the passage of Italian ships from the Mediterranean to the Black Sea. This opened the way for them to the Crimea and the Black Sea coast of the Caucasus. Genoa and Venice competed for dominance on the Black Sea, which was expressed not only in acute trade competition, but also in armed clashes between them. More successful was the Republic of Genoa, which, by agreement with the Crimean khans, founded its first trading colony of Kafu (present-day Feodosia) in the Crimea. Having built a number of trading posts (settlements), the Genoese turned their attention to the Sea of \u200b\u200bAzov and the Black Sea coast of the Caucasus. On the site of the Russian Tmutarakan and the Byzantine Tamatarkha (or, as it was abbreviated, Matarkha), the Genoese founded at the end of the 13th century. port city of Matrega. Matrega was a fortified city inhabited by representatives of various tribes and peoples. It was not only a link between East and West, but also a center of trade with the surrounding mountain tribes.
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Buying wax, fish, furs and other goods from the highlanders, Italian merchants brought eastern and western goods to the North-Western Caucasus. Major Genoese colonies in the Kuban were Mapa (Anapa), Kopa (Slavyansk-on-Kuban), Balzamikha (Yeisk), Mavrolako (Gelendzhik) and others. In total, up to 39 settlements were built, different in size and importance, but mainly performing trade and economic tasks.
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The Genoese colonies did not ignore the Roman Catholic Church, which sent its missionaries here. These preachers tried to convert the Adyghe population, who professed Greek Christianity, to Catholicism. In Matrega, a Catholic diocese was even created, which led the process of converting the local population to Catholicism, but it failed to achieve great success.
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On the site of the ancient Gorgippia (Anapa) on the steep coast of the Black Sea, the Genoese erected their fortress - the Mapu trading post. It was from her that the then famous Genoese road to the upper reaches of the river went. Kuban, there it was divided into two: one road went to Abkhazia, the other to the Caspian Sea. The road at that time was well equipped, had transshipment bases and, obviously, was well guarded. The latter was associated with close relations between the Adyghe nobility and the administration of the Genoese colonies. The Genoese were vitally interested in the safety of their merchant caravans, which moved through the Caucasian territory. The Adyghe nobility saw great benefits in trade cooperation with the Genoese.
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The Adyghe elite was the main supplier of "living goods" - slaves, who were exported to the generally recognized centers of European trade: Genoa, Venice, Florence. Slaves were "obtained" as a result of endless inter-tribal wars, raids on neighboring peoples, and the capture of prisoners. Part ordinary people turned into slaves, unable to repay debts. The highest demand was beautiful girls and physically developed young men aged 15-17. Not only the Adyghe nobility and Genoese merchants profited from the slave trade, but also the administration of Italian settlements. For example, the consul of Kopa received 6 silver coins for each sold slave, which were called asprs. Information has come down to us about trade transactions that took place during the sale of slaves. So, when one of them was performed, it was written: "A Circassian slave was sold for 12 years for 450."
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The slave trade provided bad influence on the development of the Adyghe people, reducing the population due to the youngest and most able-bodied people. The dominance of subsistence economy among the peoples of the North-Western Caucasus determined the predominance of barter trade over money circulation. The unit of exchange was usually a certain measure of fabric from which a man's shirt could be sewn. Fabrics brought by the Genoese, salt, soap, carpets, jewelry, and sabers were in great demand among the peoples of the North-Western Caucasus. But, using their unconditional dominance in the markets of the Black Sea, the Genoese merchants set extremely inflated prices for goods, deriving huge profits from trade with the local population. Moreover, high prices, for example, for such an important product as salt, were also set due to its strictly rationed importation. If more salt was imported (and this could reduce its price), then its excess was dumped into the sea. In difficult conditions, the trade of the Genoese themselves also went on. The widespread maritime piracy caused great damage to the Genoese merchants. Sea robbers not only robbed merchant ships, but also attacked coastal settlements and ports. Therefore, the Genoese were forced to hire guards to accompany merchant ships and fortify their colony cities with stone walls and loopholes, and keep garrisons in them.
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The Venetians, who sought to gain a foothold in the Azov-Black Sea basin, also remained irreconcilable rivals of the Genoese. At the mouth of the Don, like the Genoese, they founded their trading post, the interests of which were often defended with arms in hand. At the turn of the XIV-XV centuries. the contradictions between the Italians and the mountain population intensified. Exorbitant taxes, cheating in commercial transactions, imposing Catholicism, capturing and selling people - all this caused irritation. The Adyghe princes also showed dissatisfaction with the infringement of their property rights. So, in 1457 Prince Kadibeldi even took Matrega by storm. In order to strengthen its position in the Black Sea colonies, the Genoese administration resorted to the well-known "divide and rule" technique, set some princes against others, provoked them to rob their own tribesmen, promising rich goods in exchange for cattle and slaves. Beneficial deals also served to strengthen the Genoese influence in the colonies, including through marriage unions between representatives of the colonial administration and the Adyghe nobility.
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But in the second half of the XV century. the colonial rule of the Genoese Republic in the Black Sea and Sea of \u200b\u200bAzov was going to sunset. This was also evidenced by the fact that the management of the colony cities was transferred to a private bank. In 1453 under the blows of the Turks fell Constantinople - the capital of Byzantium, the turn was for the Italian colonies in the Crimea and the North-Western Caucasus. In the last quarter of the fifteenth century the Turks managed to capture all the Italian colonies on the Black and Azov Seas. The two-century stay of the Genoese in the Kuban is over. It played both a positive and (to an even greater extent) negative role in the life of local peoples. On the one hand, the Genoese introduced them to the advanced methods of economic relations and production of Eastern and Western European countries, expanding the circle of knowledge about the world. On the other hand, the unequal exchange of goods and products, tax oppression, the slave trade, and often simple robbery undermined the economy of the Circassians, restrained the growth of population and productive forces.
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From the charter for the Genoese colonies of 1449, the Consul in Kopa had to follow: "... so as not to bring more than the required amount of salt for consumption to the mentioned place. Moreover, we decide and prescribe that all merchants and other persons who bring salt to Capario [ Copa], they owe all the salt that they have left at the end of the work, that is, after salting the fish, bring it to Kafu or throw it into the sea, under a fine of 100 to 200 aspros for each barrel ... Also, that every skipper of a ship or The ship is obliged to pay the consul always a year from the cargo of the ship one aspr per barrel, and in addition for what is at anchor, 15 asprs from each ship ... Also, what the consul in Kopa can receive for each slave taken out from there, for six asprs ... ".
The assertion of the Italians in the region was accompanied for decades by a sharp struggle between various forces that claimed influence here: Byzantium, the Crimean Khanate, Genoa, Venice, Pisa, Amalfi. As a result of fierce rivalry with the Venetian Republic, which founded at the beginning of the XII century. colonies in the form of trading posts on the southern coast of the Crimean peninsula, Genoa became the monopoly owner of the sea trade routes along the Crimean coast. The interest of Italian merchants in the Black Sea was caused primarily by the fact that the traditional trade routes between the East and Europe (passing mainly through the Mediterranean) were disrupted as a result of the Mongol-Tatar conquest of the world. The main importance was acquired by the northern transit routes passing through Central and Central Asia to the Black Sea, which explained the revival of the Black Sea trade.
However, it was necessary to negotiate with the Golden Horde, which was in charge in the Crimea. In the middle of the 1260s. the Genoese founded in Cafe (Feodosia), then a small Greek-Alanian village, their trading post, also acquiring, in agreement with the ulus emir Mangu Khan, the nearby lands in their ownership. So, in the 1260-1270s. active Genoese colonization of the Black Sea coast begins. First, the southern coast of Crimea is colonized. Trading posts appear in Bosporo (Kerch), Chembalo (Balaklava). Several colonies were founded in the North-Eastern Black Sea region - Kopa (Slavyansk-on-Kuban), Matrega (Taman village), Mala (Anapa), Sebastopolis (Sukhumi), Kalolimen (modern Novorossiysk district), Mavrolako (Gelendzhik ). Tana (Azov), which had the richest fish market and was of strategic importance in the system of trade points lying between Europe and Asia, was of the greatest importance for maintaining the position of the Genoese in the Sea of Azov. Bread, salted fish and caviar were massively exported from Tana - mainly to Constantinople and Genoa. Tana was of great economic importance - a transit route to Central Asia and the Far East ran through it.
Kafa became the political and economic center of all the Genoese colonies, the center of all Black Sea (transit) trade. The Genoese behaved like at home on the Black Sea, completely driving out the Greek merchants from there. The title of the Kafa consul - "the head of Kafa and the entire Black Sea" - carried a very real content. Kafa ruled other colonies through its representatives - commandants and consuls. It should be noted that all the colonies of Italians in the Crimea and the Northern Black Sea region were multinational in composition. Even in the Cafe, the Genoese were a tiny minority. In Soldai, Cembalo, Matrega, Kop, the Greek and local (Circassian) population predominated. It should also be noted the Slavic, Armenian, Jewish element of the population of the colonies. Over time, the differentiation of the Genoese colonies takes place, among which the following can be distinguished: 1) retaining commercial importance (Kafa, Tana); 2) having the value of fortresses and centers of agricultural districts (Soldaya, Chembalo); 3) colonies, in which power was actually exercised by local (Circassian or Genoese) princes, despite the presence of officials from Kafa (Mala, Barir, Matrega, Kopa). Given the local conditions, the importance and the apparent remoteness of the colonies, Kafa was forced to pursue a flexible policy regarding the recognition in some of them of a large degree of independence. One of the features of some Italian colonies was their dependence not only on Kafa, but also on local rulers - both Italian and local (Circassian) origin. For example, since 1419 Matrega was owned by the noble Genoese Gizolfi. One of them - V. Gizolfi, having become related to the daughter and heiress of the prince from the local (Circassian) family of Biberdi-Biha-Khanum, turned this colony, extremely important for Kafa, into a semi-independent feudal possession of his family. Kafa, who was aware of the dangerous consequences of the separatism of the local prince, went, however, to the support of Gizolfi. Matrega was of strategic importance to the Italians. Located on the shores of the Kerch Strait, it ensured uninterrupted communication of the colonialists with the Bosporo, located in the Crimea, and from there with other Crimean possessions of Genoa. Bata (Barir) owned in the second half of the 15th century. noble Genoese I. de Marini, and its inhabitants paid tribute to Cafe. Kopa was ruled by a local Circassian prince. When one of its rulers erected a fortress in his possessions, the consul of Kafa was ordered by order from Genoa to take urgent measures to destroy it. The fragility of Kafa’s position in Kopa is also evidenced by the fact that, according to the Charter of the Genoese colonies in the Black Sea of 1449, the consul of Kopa had to “bring gifts to sovereign persons from Zikhia” upon arrival there, i.e. noble Circassians. The population of the colony was engaged in salting fish and cooking caviar, as well as selling slaves. Fair trade flourished in Cope (from late April to mid-May). Until the consul of Kopa set the price for fish, none of the merchants had the right to buy it - under the threat of confiscation of the goods.
The administrative apparatus created by the Genoese gradually became more complex and expanded - as their entire colonial system on the Black Sea expanded. Already in 1290, Kafa had its charter, which essentially determined the entire internal organization and structure of the Black Sea colonies, for which Kafa was the administrative center.
The position of the Italians in the region has never been secure. Kafa itself was destroyed several times by the Tatars - in 1298, 1308, and the Genoese were forced to flee. During the reign of Khan Uzbek (1312-1342), the Genoese reappeared on the shores of the Feodosia Gulf. In 1313, an embassy from Genoa was sent to the Horde, agreeing with the khan on the conditions for the return of the Genoese to the ruins of Kafa, and in 1316 the resurgent city received a new Charter. By the middle of the XIV century. Kafa became a powerful fortress, and in the 1380s. the outer line of defense of the city was erected. Despite the complication of relations with the Tatars (since 1434, the Genoese began to pay constant tribute to the Crimean Khan Hadji Giray, their worst enemy), Genoa goes to great expense to restore its presence in the Crimea. After all, it undoubtedly received large incomes from trade with the local population, the export of colonial goods and slaves to Europe. The Genoese made attempts to develop silver mines in the Caucasus mountains. Exploring local lands, they carefully mapped them.
Mid 15th century - a turning point in the history of the Genoese colonies. In 1453 the Ottoman Turks captured Constantinople. The Byzantine Empire ceased to exist, and the sea route connecting the Genoese colonies on the Black Sea with the mother country was taken under control by the Turks. The Republic of Genoa faced a real threat of losing all its Black Sea possessions, and it hurried to sell the colonies to the bank of San Giorgio with a center in Genoa in the same year. By that time, this powerful financial institution already had the right to mint coins, collect most taxes in the possessions of Genoa, control Genoese customs, and have a monopoly on the operation of salt mines. Having received the right to manage and inalienable possession of the Black Sea colonies for a low price (5500 livres), the bank only completed with this act the process of gradual absorption of the Genoese possessions. Already in June 1454, warships of the Ottoman Turks appeared on the Kafa roadstead. They left only after the Turks, having robbed several settlements on the Crimean and Caucasian coasts, obtained from Kafa a promise to pay them an annual tribute. It was clear that the days of Italian rule on the Black Sea coast were numbered. But the mortal blow to the colonies was delivered only after the Ottoman Turks concluded a truce with Venice (1474). On May 31, 1475, a Turkish squadron approached the Cafe. Kafa, which had powerful fortifications, surrendered a few days later. In the second half of 1475, the Turks made a campaign towards the Don and the Sea of \u200b\u200bAzov, capturing Matrega, Kopa, Tana, and others. Kafa, where the Sultan's governor was located, became the center of Ottoman possessions in the Black Sea region.
So ingloriously ended the dominion of Genoa in the Crimea and the Northern Black Sea region. Striving for the fastest enrichment, mercilessly exploiting the population of the colonies, the Genoese failed to create a solid foundation for their presence in the region. Quite often, the reports of the consuls spoke of clashes, strife with local tribes. "Peaceful" or "friendly" treaties, to which the Circassians were forced by force, were almost immediately violated by them. The policy of the Circassian nobility in relation to the Kafsky administration was distinguished by insidiousness. There are separate positive consequences of the long-term presence of Italians in the Caucasus - the Adyghes become known in Europe, since their lands are mapped by the Genoese; the local population of the colonies, including the Adyghe, gets acquainted with the achievements of European culture; the development of trade contributed to the well-being of a certain part of the Adyghe society. In general, however, Italian colonization had negative consequences for the peoples of the North Caucasus. Attempts to convert the local population to Catholicism were often violent. The slave trade bled the Circassians, depressingly affecting their gene pool. Encouraging this "fishing", the Genoese thereby kindled new clashes between the Circassians (since the nobility was interested in capturing prisoners). The predatory nature of trade delayed the growth of the productive forces of the aboriginal population, based on shameless deceit, monopoly and the absence of an alternative choice for the Circassians.
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Italian colonization of the Black Sea coast of the Caucasus As a result of the Crusades in the XI-XIII centuries. in Italy such merchant republics as Genoa and Venice flourished economically. Pushing back the Arabs and the Byzantines, the Italian merchants took over the intermediary trade between Western Europe and the East. Soon they became such powerful trading powers that contemporaries rightfully called Genoa "the god of the seas", and Venice - the port city on the Adriatic Sea - "the queen of the Adriatic".
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In the XIII century. the weakening Byzantium was forced to open its Bosporus and Dardanelles for the passage of Italian ships from the Mediterranean to the Black Sea. This opened the way for them to the Crimea and the Black Sea coast of the Caucasus. Genoa and Venice competed for dominance on the Black Sea, which was expressed not only in acute trade competition, but also in armed clashes between them. More successful was the Republic of Genoa, which, by agreement with the Crimean khans, founded its first trading colony of Kafu (present-day Feodosia) in the Crimea. Having built a number of trading posts (settlements), the Genoese turned their attention to the Sea of \u200b\u200bAzov and the Black Sea coast of the Caucasus. On the site of the Russian Tmutarakan and the Byzantine Tamatarkha (or, as it was abbreviated, Matarkha), the Genoese founded at the end of the 13th century. port city of Matrega. Matrega was a fortified city inhabited by representatives of various tribes and peoples. It was not only a link between East and West, but also a center of trade with the surrounding mountain tribes.
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Buying wax, fish, furs and other goods from the highlanders, Italian merchants brought eastern and western goods to the North-Western Caucasus. Major Genoese colonies in the Kuban were Mapa (Anapa), Kopa (Slavyansk-on-Kuban), Balzamikha (Yeisk), Mavrolako (Gelendzhik) and others. In total, up to 39 settlements were built, different in size and importance, but mainly performing trade and economic tasks.
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The Genoese colonies did not ignore the Roman Catholic Church, which sent its missionaries here. These preachers tried to convert the Adyghe population, who professed Greek Christianity, to Catholicism. In Matrega, a Catholic diocese was even created, which led the process of converting the local population to Catholicism, but it failed to achieve great success.
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On the site of the ancient Gorgippia (Anapa) on the steep coast of the Black Sea, the Genoese erected their fortress - the Mapu trading post. It was from her that the then famous Genoese road to the upper reaches of the river went. Kuban, there it was divided into two: one road went to Abkhazia, the other to the Caspian Sea. The road at that time was well equipped, had transshipment bases and, obviously, was well guarded. The latter was associated with close relations between the Adyghe nobility and the administration of the Genoese colonies. The Genoese were vitally interested in the safety of their merchant caravans, which moved through the Caucasian territory. The Adyghe nobility saw great benefits in trade cooperation with the Genoese.
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The Adyghe elite was the main supplier of "living goods" - slaves, who were exported to the generally recognized centers of European trade: Genoa, Venice, Florence. Slaves were "obtained" as a result of endless inter-tribal wars, raids on neighboring peoples, and the capture of prisoners. Some ordinary people turned into slaves, unable to repay their debts. Beautiful girls and physically developed boys aged 15-17 were in the greatest demand. Not only the Adyghe nobility and Genoese merchants profited from the slave trade, but also the administration of Italian settlements. For example, the consul of Kopa received 6 silver coins for each sold slave, which were called asprs. Information has come down to us about trade transactions that took place during the sale of slaves. So, when one of them was performed, it was written: "A Circassian slave was sold for 12 years for 450."
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The slave trade had a negative impact on the development of the Adyghe people, reducing the population due to the youngest and most able-bodied people. The dominance of subsistence economy among the peoples of the North-Western Caucasus determined the predominance of barter trade over money circulation. The unit of exchange was usually a certain measure of fabric from which a man's shirt could be sewn. Fabrics brought by the Genoese, salt, soap, carpets, jewelry, and sabers were in great demand among the peoples of the North-Western Caucasus. But, using their unconditional dominance in the markets of the Black Sea, the Genoese merchants set extremely inflated prices for goods, deriving huge profits from trade with the local population. Moreover, high prices, for example, for such an important product as salt, were also set due to its strictly rationed importation. If more salt was imported (and this could reduce its price), then its excess was dumped into the sea. In difficult conditions, the trade of the Genoese themselves also went on. The widespread maritime piracy caused great damage to the Genoese merchants. Sea robbers not only robbed merchant ships, but also attacked coastal settlements and ports. Therefore, the Genoese were forced to hire guards to accompany merchant ships and fortify their colony cities with stone walls and loopholes, and keep garrisons in them.
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The Venetians, who sought to gain a foothold in the Azov-Black Sea basin, also remained irreconcilable rivals of the Genoese. At the mouth of the Don, like the Genoese, they founded their trading post, the interests of which were often defended with arms in hand. At the turn of the XIV-XV centuries. the contradictions between the Italians and the mountain population intensified. Exorbitant taxes, cheating in commercial transactions, imposing Catholicism, capturing and selling people - all this caused irritation. The Adyghe princes also showed dissatisfaction with the infringement of their property rights. So, in 1457 Prince Kadibeldi even took Matrega by storm. In order to strengthen its position in the Black Sea colonies, the Genoese administration resorted to the well-known "divide and rule" technique, set some princes against others, provoked them to rob their own tribesmen, promising rich goods in exchange for cattle and slaves. Beneficial deals also served to strengthen the Genoese influence in the colonies, including through marriage unions between representatives of the colonial administration and the Adyghe nobility.
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But in the second half of the XV century. the colonial rule of the Genoese Republic in the Black Sea and Sea of \u200b\u200bAzov was going to sunset. This was also evidenced by the fact that the management of the colony cities was transferred to a private bank. In 1453 under the blows of the Turks fell Constantinople - the capital of Byzantium, the turn was for the Italian colonies in the Crimea and the North-Western Caucasus. In the last quarter of the fifteenth century the Turks managed to capture all the Italian colonies on the Black and Azov Seas. The two-century stay of the Genoese in the Kuban is over. It played both a positive and (to an even greater extent) negative role in the life of local peoples. On the one hand, the Genoese introduced them to the advanced methods of economic relations and production of Eastern and Western European countries, expanding the circle of knowledge about the world. On the other hand, the unequal exchange of goods and products, tax oppression, the slave trade, and often simple robbery undermined the economy of the Circassians, restrained the growth of population and productive forces.
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From the charter for the Genoese colonies of 1449, the Consul in Kopa had to follow: "... so as not to bring more than the required amount of salt for consumption to the mentioned place. Moreover, we decide and prescribe that all merchants and other persons who bring salt to Capario [ Copa], they owe all the salt that they have left at the end of the work, that is, after salting the fish, bring it to Kafu or throw it into the sea, under a fine of 100 to 200 aspros for each barrel ... Also, that every skipper of a ship or The ship is obliged to pay the consul always a year from the cargo of the ship one aspr per barrel, and in addition for what is at anchor, 15 asprs from each ship ... Also, what the consul in Kopa can receive for each slave taken out from there, for six asprs ... ".
Italian colonies on the Black Sea coast of the Caucasus.
Target: 1. to form students' knowledge about the emergence of Italian colonies on the Black Sea coast.
2. To instill a love for history and cultural monuments of world significance.
3. Form a spiritually developed personality with a stable national identity.
Equipment: map of the medieval Kuban 10-13 centuries, atlas, textbook, contour maps.
During the classes.
Knowledge update
Learning new material.
Almost simultaneously with the establishment of the Mongol-Tatar dominion over the tribes and peoples of the Black Sea region, the peaceful penetration of the Italian merchants into these territories began. The Italians sought to expand their trading activity, markets for products and extract the maximum profit from this. Colonization was accompanied by rivalry between the two major cities- Venice and Genoa.
The desire of both maritime republics to establish a trade monopoly in the Black Sea region results in a sharp competitive struggle and direct armed clashes between them. By the middle of the XIV century, the predominance of Genoa becomes clear. The colonial policy of Venice was almost entirely determined by the state, and its trade was largely based on operations with expensive oriental goods, the supply of which was completely dependent on the vicissitudes of the political situation in the region, the state of trade routes along their entire length, including not only the sea route, but and caravan routes. In contrast, Genoa relied more on the activities of individuals, on merchant companies and associations.
At the same time, Genoa had at least a dozen and a half scattered trading posts in the Black Sea region, through which not only eastern goods passed, but also the flow of local products intended for regional trade. For a number of reasons, the Kaffa colony took the leading place among them. When it was created, the Genoese merchants could not but reckon with the experience of the neighboring Soldaya (Sudak) - widely known in Western Europe, Russia and Asia shopping center.
At the same time, Genoa had at least a dozen and a half scattered trading posts in the Black Sea region, through which not only eastern goods passed, but also the flow of local products intended for regional trade. For a number of reasons, the Kaffa colony took the leading place among them. When it was created, the Genoese merchants could not but take into account the experience of the neighboring Soldaya (Sudak) - a trade center widely known in Western Europe, in Russia and in Asia. At the end of the 13th century, its new rise was facilitated, in particular, by the fact that it was much closer than Kherson to the Sea of Azov and Kerch Strait, through which ships passed, the largest colony was Kaffa, which was a developed center of crafts.
In 1266, the representatives of Genoa agreed with the rulers of the Golden Horde on the transfer of Kafa to them, however, on the basis of an agreement on the division trade income there were clashes that ended in predatory raids by the Tatars.
From the Genoese period in the Crimea, the remains of fortress walls, towers and palaces in Kaffa and Chembalo, a fortress and a consular castle in Soldaya built under the guidance of Italian architects have been preserved. In 1951, in Feodosia, on the territory of the Genoese fortress, archaeological excavations were carried out, which provided valuable material for studying the history of the city, its crafts and trade.
Working with text (administration of the Genoese colonies pp. 84-85)
Anchoring
How the Genoese managed to win the trade rivalry with Venice.
With what goals did the Genoese attract the local nobility to the management of the colonies and become related to it.
Show on the map the approximate location of the main Genoese settlements on the shores of the Black and Azov Seas (work in the contour map).
Homework.
