In life modern man more and more space is given to digital technology. Faithful companions in travel, hiking, excursions are digital cameras. They are an excellent solution for everyday use. The main element in the design of this type of device is a photosensitive matrix (or several matrices), the signal from which is processed and digitally stored in the device.
Digital cameras can be divided into amateur, semi-professional and professional. Amateur cameras have a resolution ranging from 640×480 to 800×600 pixels. Good quality photographs are obtained, respectively, within the limits of up to 4x5 and up to 5x7 cm.
semi-professional cameras have a resolution of at least 1280×960 pixels. Good quality is ensured when the size of photographs is no more than 10x15 cm. Professional cameras have a resolution of at least 1500×1200 pixels. Good quality will be with a photo size of no more than 15×20 cm. One of the models of the professional digital camera Nikon-DIX has a resolution of 3008×1960 pixels. This division into classes, based on the principle of resolution, is conditional. In addition to the resolution, the class of the device is also determined by the dynamic range (bit / color), the memory capacity for storing images, the quality of the optics, etc.
Digital cameras of various classes are produced by such well-known photographic companies as Kodak, Canon, Nikon, Pentax, Minolta, Olympus. Of the other companies, digital cameras are produced by "Sony". In addition to digital cameras, attachments to traditional cameras from Nikon, Canon, Minolta and Maniya are also produced. Attachments are installed instead of the back cover of the camera, turning it into a digital camera.
Also available studio digital cameras high class. The main advantage of digital cameras compared to traditional ones is ease of use and efficiency. The time between clicking the shutter and viewing the picture is a few seconds. In the traditional process (with the exception of Polaroid), this takes at least several tens of minutes.
Digital technology allows you to view the picture immediately on a computer monitor or on the camera's built-in display. If the result is unsatisfactory, the photographer has the opportunity to repeat the shooting. Photos are stored in the camera's memory on magnetic media. In some cameras, the captured frames are recorded on ordinary three-inch floppy disks. All this allows you to quickly remove unnecessary photos and add new ones. If necessary, in a matter of minutes, you can print photos on the printer. The use of a digital camera virtually eliminates technical defects (errors in exposure, framing, etc.), which are often encountered when shooting with traditional cameras, especially among inexperienced photographers.
The main disadvantage of digital cameras is that high image quality can only be achieved with high-end professional cameras, such as studio cameras, which are quite expensive. Cheap digital cameras (semi-professional or amateur) give an image that is inferior to photographs taken with traditional mid-range cameras.
A few words about manufacturers
Cameras can be classified according to the type of viewfinder; according to the method of measuring the brightness of an object, according to the design of the lens, according to the level consumer properties and other signs.
According to the type of viewfinder, cameras are divided into compact (portable), pseudo-mirror and reflex.
Compact cameras got their name due to their compact size and low weight. They are equipped with miniature lenses with a large depth of field to compensate possible mistakes autofocus systems. Compact digital cameras are equipped with a liquid crystal display and (or) a telescopic viewfinder to control the composition of the frame.
Pseudo-reflex cameras are equipped with an electron-optical viewfinder and, in terms of size and weight, occupy an intermediate position between compact and SLR cameras. This type of viewfinder can be used in bright sunlight where it becomes difficult to use a conventional LCD screen.
SLR cameras got their name from the reflex viewfinder used in them. They differ in large overall dimensions are equipped with appropriate lenses.
The optical system of a SLR camera allows you to visually control the composition of the frame and focus through the viewfinder eyepiece.
According to the design of the lens, cameras are classified into cameras equipped with a fixed focal length lens and cameras with a variable focal length (Zoom lens). In turn, cameras equipped with a Zoom lens, depending on its magnification, are divided into cameras equipped with a compact, standard and powerful Zoom lens.
According to the method of measuring the brightness of an object, cameras are divided into cameras of external measurement and cameras of internal measurement according to the TTL system.
In cameras with external brightness measurement, exposure is measured by a photodetector located on the front panel next to the lens. This exposure metering system is equipped with cameras of simple and middle classes. The photodetector measures the integral (total) brightness of various objects within its coverage area.
In cameras of the TTL system (from English, through the lens - through the lens), exposure is measured by a photodetector located inside the camera behind the lens. High-end SLR cameras are equipped with this exposure metering system. This location of the photodetector provides a higher accuracy in measuring exposure parameters.
According to the level of consumer properties, cameras can be divided into cameras of simple, medium and high classes.
The simple class cameras include compact automatic multi-program cameras weighing up to 200 g, equipped with a miniature wide-angle Zoom lens (usually up to 3x), CCD light-sensitive matrix, 1/2.7", 1/2.5" or 1/ 2.3" and saving a photographic image with compression in JPEG format. The maximum light sensitivity of the sensor is usually limited to 1600 ISO units. They allow you to get a photographic image of satisfactory quality.
Middle-class cameras include compact automatic multi-program cameras weighing from 200 g to 500 g, equipped with a Zoom lens (at least 3 x), including pseudo-reflex cameras with interchangeable lenses, light-sensitive matrix, ranging in size from 1 / 1.8 "to 2/3" and save a photographic image in JPEG, TIFF or RAW format. The maximum sensitivity of the matrix, as a rule, is limited to 3200 ISO units. They allow you to shoot a variety of scenes and get good quality pictures.
High-class cameras include reflex automatic multi-program cameras weighing 500 g or more, with point and multi-zone autofocus and exposure metering systems. They allow the use of interchangeable lenses, electronic flash lamps, and, if necessary, turn off camera automation and switch to manual focusing and setting exposure parameters. High-end cameras are equipped with a photosensitive CMOS matrix, ranging in size from 20 x 13 mm to 49 x 37 mm, and save photographic images mainly on Compact flash and SD (SDHC) memory cards, in RAW, JPEG, TIFF format. They have a wide range of matrix light sensitivity (up to 6400 ISO units and higher), shutter speeds (up to 1/8000 s) and allow you to quickly shoot a wide variety of scenes and get high quality pictures.
In multi-program automatic cameras, shutter speed and aperture are set automatically in one of the programs (“Full auto”, “Portrait”, “Landscape”, “Sports”, “Night portrait”, “Night landscape”, “Macro shooting”) selected in accordance with shooting scene. Medium and high-end cameras additionally have creative shooting modes: “Program AE”, “Shutter-priority AE”, “Aperture-priority AE”, “Manual exposure”, “ Automatic installation depth of field".
Camera classification
The study of photographic equipment necessitates the establishment of some kind of classification that allows one to divide the entire mass of cameras into groups, each of which would combine a number of cameras with common characteristic features. These signs are: the purpose of the device, its format, the type of photographic materials used in it and the method of focusing the lens (focusing).
According to the first of these features, cameras are divided into general purpose apparatus, designed for a wide range of general photography applications, and special purpose devices. The bulk of the produced cameras are general-purpose devices. Special purpose devices include only panoramic and stereoscopic devices.
Format refers to the size of the resulting negatives. For amateur cameras, the following international standard photo camera formats: 2.4x2.4; 2.4x2.6; 4.5x6; 6x6; 6x9 and 6.5x9 cm. In addition, some intermediate formats (2.4x3.2 cm and others), as well as 10x14 and 14x21 mm formats, come into practice.
10x14 and 14x21 mm cameras are called miniature, or microformat. Devices of the format from 2.4x2.4 to 2.4x3.6 cm were called small format. Devices of format from 4.5x6 cm and more are called large format.
According to the type of photographic materials used, cameras are divided into plate and film.
The vast majority of modern cameras are film cameras. In this group there are large-format, or wide-film, devices (6x6 and 6x9 cm), designed for the use of roll film 6 cm wide; small format for perforated 35 mm motion picture film and miniature or microformat for narrow, 16 mm, perforated or non-perforated film stock.
According to the focusing system used, cameras are divided into rangefinder, reflex, devices with pickup on a distance scale and devices with constant aiming.
rangefinder cameras are called, in which the focusing of the image is carried out using an optical rangefinder built into the camera body and mechanically connected to the lens barrel.
Mirrored called cameras of a special design, in which the focusing of the image is carried out visually on ground glass with the help of an optical mirror located inside the device.
Apparatus with aiming on a scale of distances do not have any other focusing devices, except for the distance scale, usually marked on the lens barrel.
Devices with constant aiming do not have a focusing device at all, the lens in them is motionless.
Film cameras
plate camera
Panoramic camera
stereoscopic camera
Test questions:
1. The main features according to which the classification of cameras is made
2. Classification of cameras according to their purpose
3. Classification of cameras by format
4. What types of cameras are divided into according to the type of photographic materials used?
5. Types of cameras according to the applied focusing system
Since it is difficult to give a consistent classification of cameras, I propose a simplified version.
It is customary to divide cameras into non-mirror and reflex cameras. Non-mirror, in turn, are divided into compact, amateur and prosumer. Mirror - for amateur, semi-professional and professional.
Non-mirror cameras
Compact, or "soap dishes". Their main advantage is their small size and weight. Cameras can vary greatly in photographic capabilities, design and "exterior", but they all have a small lens with a fully electric control. Manual modes, if any (like manual focusing), are performed by software, by the camera motor. The disparaging name "soap dish" came not so much from the shape of the body, sometimes really resembling a soap dish, but from the quality of the image, which, due to an inexpensive lens, turned out to be not quite clear, blurry. But today, the quality of optics has grown significantly, and photos taken by a good compact camera cannot be immediately distinguished (if at all) from shots taken by a higher-class camera.
Non-compact (amateur). You can’t put these cameras in your pocket anymore - a rather large (and with a higher magnification) lens will interfere. Like the "soap dishes", it has a fully electric control. Lately among compact cameras a "subspecies" (mostly fashion) of ultra-thin models was formed.
Semi-professional (prosumer). The name is formed from two words - professional and consumer. In free translation - a professional user, or an advanced amateur, that is, a person who is already cramped within the framework of compact and amateur cameras, but who does not want (or cannot) purchase more expensive equipment. Cameras from different manufacturers are more or less similar to each other (apart from frills) and have a large and high-quality lens with a wide range of focal lengths (or magnification). Although in the vast majority of cases it is equipped with a manual zoom, there are a number of models (from Canon, Nikon and Sony) with electric control, but I can’t turn my tongue to call them amateur or compact.
In addition, prosumer cameras can save images in RAW format, which allows you to get the most out of the capabilities of the device and get the highest image quality.
The boundary between the amateur and prosumer class is rather blurry, so it is impossible to classify a camera to one or another class only according to one of the two criteria given (lens + RAW). There are, say, compact models (from Canon, Fujifilm and Samsung) that support saving in RAW format, and there are amateur cameras (for example, the Canon PowerShot S5 IS) equipped with a fairly large and high-quality zoom lens.
SLR cameras
As the name implies, their main hallmark is a mirror. The second most important is interchangeable lenses (that is, the ability to change lenses). In addition, dSLRs have much faster autofocus than compacts.
Cameras of this class allow you to get an order of magnitude more high quality images - primarily due to the larger physical size of the matrix.
SLR cameras are divided into professional, semi-professional and amateur. This division is not as arbitrary as it might seem at first glance. First you need to decide what a professional tool is. It is intended for the implementation by a specialist of his professional activity(sorry for the tautology). The two main differences between a professional tool and a semi-professional and amateur tool are reliability and quality. With regard to photographic equipment, this means not only high build quality and the resulting image (amateur cameras can boast of this), but also high reliability of all components (especially the shutter), which allows the professional photographer not to think about technology (in the sense of the camera), but to fully concentrate at work.
Outwardly, professional and semi-professional SLR cameras can be distinguished by two features - you will not find scene icons on their levers and wheels, and on the body itself there is no built-in flash.
Amateur dSLRs, on the other hand, differ from the two mentioned categories in that their body (especially the mount) is almost entirely made of plastic. And although it significantly reduces the weight of the device, it also beats durability and reliability.
By the way, speaking of shooting at dusk, one cannot help but mention shooting in complete darkness. Although the matrix of any digital camera is sensitive to the infrared range, a non-removable IR filter is usually installed in front of it. But there are some models where the filter can be removed. This is, firstly, a reflex Canon 20Da, which is positioned as an astrophotographic camera and costs accordingly. And secondly, some models from Sony (Cyber-shot DSC-H50 and H9). In NightShot mode, thanks to a laser (holographic) focusing system and a retractable IR filter, they can focus and shoot in pitch darkness (near IR). Pictures, of course, are monochrome (black and white).
4. Large optical zoom ratio (large range of focal lengths). The undisputed leader today is the Olympus SP-570 UZ (26-520 mm, magnification factor - 20x), weighing only 545 g. Other advantages of this model include a solid sensitivity range - 64-6400 ISO, wide coverage angle (26 mm at 35 -mm equivalent) and, of course, an optical image stabilizer.
Second place (magnification - 18x) is shared by four cameras - Panasonic Lumix DMC-FZ18, Fujifilm FinePix S8000fd, Olympus SP-550UZ and Olympus SP-560UZ. From a technical point of view, the last two cameras are twins.
And even from the first place they are separated only by the magnification factor and the resolution of the matrix.
The only "disadvantage" of these cameras can be called a rather large size. If you need a flat camera with a large optical zoom, then there are only two options - Kodak V610 (10x) and Casio Exilim Hi-Zoom EX-V8 (8x)
5. Wide angle lens. Among compact cameras, the Kodak V705 holds the palm - the coverage angle of its lens is equivalent to 23 mm (in terms of 35 mm).
An alternative to a wide-angle lens is panoramic shooting. And although it can be done using any camera, computer and special software for creating panoramas, there are cameras with a special Panorama mode. These are, in particular, models from Canon, HP and Kodak. In my subjective opinion, this mode is best implemented in cameras from HP.
6. Macro photography. If we are not talking about real macro photography (with a magnification of 1: 1 or more), you need to look closely at cameras with a minimum focusing distance. There are many devices on sale that have a minimum distance to the object of 1 cm in the "Macro" mode, however, for the Canon PowerShot S3 IS and S5 IS models, the minimum focusing distance is 0 cm. That is, the object being shot can be placed directly on the surface of the front lens.
7. Rotary display. Here we recall that digital cameras have an LCD display, which is not always hardwired. Thanks to the rotary screen, it becomes possible to shoot from a variety of angles - from the ground, above the crowd, from around the corner, from the waist (so as not to raise the camera to the face for sighting), etc.
Models with multiple display rotation axes are produced only by the Canon PowerShot A640, A650 IS, S5 IS and S3 IS.
Still, however, there is the Sony Cyber-shot DSC-R1, but it is difficult to classify it as a compact camera. If we are content with a small - folding screen, then the Sony Cyber-shot DSC-H9 and several DSLRs will be added to the listed devices.
8. Large LCD screen. The diagonal of built-in LCD screens is growing year by year. And today many cameras have a fairly large 3-inch screen with high resolution. However, there is no limit to perfection, there are models with a larger screen - 3.5 ”(8.8 cm)! There are not many of them, and they are all released by Sony Cyber-shot DSC-T300, T200 and G1. The features of the latest model are ultra-high screen resolution (921,000 pixels; compare with the traditional 230,000 of the same T300) and built-in memory of 2 GB.
9. Games with time. Casio recently released the very interesting Exilim Pro EX-F1, which has a phenomenal 60fps shooting speed (at full 6MP resolution)! In addition to taking quick photos, the camera can shoot movies at 300, 600 and 1200 fps. Thanks to such capabilities, coupled with a competent and logical control system for this very shooting speed, the device this moment has no competitors either among compacts or among DSLRs (including professional ones!).
Exilim Pro EX-F1 actually ceases to be just a camera, but becomes a kind of time machine, cutting fleeting seconds into thin slices, which show details that are imperceptible at normal shooting speed.
Cameras- complex optical-mechanical devices designed to obtain an image of photographed or filmed objects on photographic film. With the help of a camera, shooting is carried out in single frames in order to obtain photographs or transparencies.
The camera consists of a light-tight camera, a lens, a shutter, a viewfinder, a focusing mechanism, a film moving mechanism, and other components.
Depending on the features of the device, cameras are divided according to a number of criteria.
According to the frame format and the type of photosensitive material used, cameras are divided into:
Miniature with a frame format of 13 x 17 mm, designed for a film width of 16 mm,
Semi-format with a frame format of 18 x 24 mm, working on perforated film 35 mm wide,
Small format with a frame size of 24 x 36 mm (perforated film with a width of 35 mm),
Medium format with frame formats 6x4.5.6x6.6x 9 mm, working with non-perforated film 61.5 mm wide,
Large-format with frame sizes 13 x 18, 18 x 24, 30 x 40 cm, working on sheet flat films or photographic plates.
Cameras are also classified shutter type .
A shutter is a mechanism designed to precisely measure the time it takes for light to pass through a lens in order to illuminate photosensitive material. The time of exposure to light on the photographic material is called shutter speed, it is indicated in seconds or fractions of a second. Excerpts are fixed by the following numerical series: 8; four; 2; one; 1/2; 1/4; 1/8; 1/15; 1/30; 1/60; 1/125; 1/500; 1/1000 s.
By design, central and curtain-slotted shutters are most widely used. The central shutter consists of 2-5 thin segments, triggered in the process of photographing under the action of springs and levers. Curtain shutters are a light-tight flexible curtain tape.
The central shutter ensures the absence of geometric distortions of fast-moving objects, the possibility of using a flash lamp at any shutter speed.
Slit-curtain shutters allow the use of interchangeable optics; with slow shutter movements, they can distort the image.
In modern equipment, electronic shutters are used, the shutters of which are driven by an electronic unit. A feature of electronic shutters is the stepless processing of shutter speeds in automatic cameras, which allows you to get the most optimal image density on film when shooting.
Viewfinder - an optical device for observing the subject and determining the boundaries of the space depicted in the frame.
By type of viewfinder cameras come with frame, reflex, telescopic (the last two are optical), as well as with a universal viewfinder.
Frame viewfinders simple in design and rarely found in modern cameras. The dimensions of the viewfinder frames and the distances between them are calculated so that the boundaries of the objects being shot correspond to the image projected on the film.
Optical reflex viewfinder consists of two converging lenses located at right angles to each other, a mirror and a lens on which the object is observed. Unlike a frame viewfinder, such a viewfinder allows you to observe an object and determine the boundaries of the frame in the absence of parallax (displacement of the image in the viewfinder with an optical image on the photographic material).
Telescopic viewfinder, consisting of diverging and collecting lenses, is located above and to the side of the lens, it is characterized by parallax phenomena.
Versatile viewfinder is a complex telescopic system consisting of five viewfinders and a prism that rotates the image and allows you to view it straight.
Depending on the focusing mechanism cameras are available with focusing on a distance scale, character scale, frosted glass and a rangefinder.
The most common focusing of the lens on the distance scale. The distance to the subject is determined by eye, then the camera lens is set to the appropriate division on the distance scale, then the aiming accuracy is slightly corrected.
Focusing on symbols is carried out in cameras, in which special signs indicate the distance to the object being shot (portrait, group of people, landscape).
Ground glass focusing is used in pavilion large format and medium format cameras. Pointing accuracy depends on the visual acuity of the photographer, the quality of the matte surface onto which the object being shot is projected.
The most accurate focusing is carried out using a rangefinder installed inside the camera body. Cameras with a rangefinder have a combined rangefinder eyepiece and a telescopic viewfinder with a diopter device. With fine tuning, the image should not split in two.
In automatic cameras, focusing occurs automatically.
Cameras are classified according to the presence additional devices . These can be components and mechanisms that ensure reliable operation and stable results in a wide variety of shooting conditions. Frame counter- a device for recording from the removed film, available in almost all cameras and interlocked with a tape drive mechanism. Synchrocontact - device to fire the flash and shutter at the same time as the picture is taken. On the front of the camera is the socket for this unit, to which the flash cable is connected.
Self-timer (timer) allows you to activate the camera shutter with a delay of up to 10 seconds. The timer may have a built-in indicator, which, after turning on the timer, starts flashing at an accelerating pace.
Reminder or film indicator, is used to remind the photographer about the sensitivity and color of the film loaded in the camera.
Trigger cable socket is used to avoid camera shake and to avoid blurry images on the negative.
Depth-of-Field Lever provides the ability to determine through the viewfinder the boundaries of sharply depicted objects in the frame.
tripod socket designed to mount the camera on a tripod or to mount a cameo in a case.
exposure device registers the value of the light flux by the photosensitive element and allows you to determine the shutter speed and aperture (lens opening degree) according to the set film sensitivity, taking into account the brightness of the subject or its illumination. The industry produces cameras with single- and multi-program exposure meters.
Almost all modern cameras have built-in electronic flash lamps. When photographing in poorly lit places, the flash lamp fires automatically. Its readiness for operation is indicated by the indicator light located on the back of the camera.
Red-eye protection mechanism(red eyes - red ice) ensures the elimination of the interaction of the light flux from the flash lamp with the lens of the eyes of the subjects.
Autofocus - device, allowing you to change focal length the lens when it "exits" or "enters" it in relation to the front of the camera. This device provides the ability to adjust the scale of subjects on film. Zooming is automatic and may be accompanied by a buzzer.
Fast rewind mechanism from filmed footage allows you to manually, by rotating the head, or automatically, by pressing the button, place the exposed film in the cassette without opening the back cover of the camera.
Date stamping device allows you to set on the film, and then on the photo itself, the year, month and date of shooting, as well as the time of photography.
Depending on the degree of automation cameras are non-automatic, semi-automatic, automatic and full automatic.
AT non-automatic cameras the amateur photographer sets the shutter speed and aperture values on their own, using their experience, or using a photo exposure meter.
semi-automatic camera in its design it has an interconnected system: exposure meter - lens aperture - shutter. When shooting, the exposure meter is directed at the object, and in the viewfinder the galvanometer needle is aligned with a certain index by rotating the shutter speed and aperture rings.
Automatic apparatus has a built-in exposure meter that independently adjusts the shutter and lens aperture depending on the lighting conditions; the shooting modes are set automatically.
In full auto the shooting parameters are also set automatically, and the film advance (setting the next frame) is automatically performed. In this case, there may be a sound accompaniment of this process using a buzzer. Automatic cameras and full automata work using batteries inserted into a special compartment.
Of particular note digital cameras. They have a lens, shutter, aperture, providing an external resemblance to conventional cameras. The image is perceived on a light-sensitive electronic matrix in the form of dotted elements (pixels) and is recorded with the help of a processor in the camera's memory or on a special medium (CD ROM, floppy disk or card). The recorded image can be played back using a computer. A graphic file, where the image is recorded in binary code, can be viewed on the monitor screen, printed on plain paper using a printer. Photos taken with a digital camera can be edited by highlighting individual fragments, zooming in and creating artistic compositions based on them. Using a computer, you can create an electronic photo archive and store digital photos in it. Modern models of digital cameras can be equipped with miniature liquid crystal displays for viewing footage.
There are camera models with built-in inkjet printers that allow you to print pictures. The capabilities of digital cameras are constantly expanding, new original solutions for taking pictures using new technology. The image quality of a digital photograph depends on specifications electronic matrix. Modern digital cameras have matrices of 6 megapixels or more, allowing you to get high-quality images.
According to the degree of preparedness of the amateur photographer cameras are divided into the following types:
For beginners;
For those who are prepared;
For experienced;
Special Purpose.
Cameras for beginners less complex in design. They have a fixed lens, a central shutter, a distance scale or a character scale for focusing, and varying degrees of automation.
Cameras for trained amateur photographers more complex. They have interchangeable lenses with an average photopower, a curtain shutter, focusing is carried out, as a rule, using a rangefinder, as well as on frosted glass. Available in different degrees of automation, they can be used for microphotography, shooting fast-moving objects and in low light conditions.
Cameras for experienced amateur and professional photographers have a reflex viewfinder, interchangeable fast lens, automatic or semi-automatic exposure setting. They are used for shooting high-quality portraits, slides, microphotography and close-up photography.
For special purpose cameras include devices for reproduction work (FKR), for photo hunting (“Photosniper”, “Photoset”) with a long-focus lens for shooting distant objects. Separately presented are foreign-made cameras that allow you to take pictures using a silver-free process.
By brand different cameras domestic production- FED, "Change", "Zenith", "Sharp", "Viliya", LOMO, "Salyut", "Amateur" and others (the serial number of the modification is also indicated in the brand name) and foreign production - "Canon", " Practice, Pentagon, etc.
