Where is the stork. white stork

What a stork looks like is known to everyone. If you have not met in person, many people know the stork from a photo or from numerous brands that use the image of a bird on their logos.

Storks belong to the order of storks (ankles) and are part of the vast family of storks. The genus of storks includes 7 species of birds distributed in Eurasia, Africa and South America.

Stork in flight.

Description

These are large long-legged long-necked birds, about 100 cm high. The wingspan of an adult reaches 1.5-2 m. Their legs are devoid of plumage and covered with red mesh skin, and webbed fingers end in short pink claws. On the neck and head there are also areas of exposed skin of red or yellow color. The straight elongated beak is distinguished by a pointed conical shape. The plumage color is various combinations of black and white. Females are slightly smaller than males, otherwise the birds look the same.

An interesting feature of storks is the almost complete absence of a voice. These birds are extremely taciturn, and for communicative communication they use hissing and clicking their beaks.

Storks live separately or in small groups, and their existence is closely connected with various freshwater biotopes where birds feed and nest.

Stork in the field.

What do storks eat

Storks eat exclusively animal food. Different species consume fish, shellfish, frogs, snakes, poisonous snakes, lizards, and large insects to a greater or lesser extent. The diet often includes small mammals: rats, mice, moles, gophers, rabbits. Storks track down their prey by walking leisurely, and when they notice the victim, they run up and grab it. The offspring are fed first by belching from semi-digested food, later they are thrown into the mouths of earthworms by the chicks.

The stork stayed for the winter.

Reproduction features

Storks are monogamous and the male and female jointly build a nest, incubate and feed their offspring. The mating rituals of the species differ, for example, the male white stork does not choose a companion, but considers the first female flying up to the nest to be hers.

These birds build nests that are unique in size and durability and are used from generation to generation. Therefore, one of the favorite topics of professional photographers is a photo of storks in a nest. The record belongs to white storks, who built and occupied a nest on one of the German towers for almost 4 centuries.

Females lay from 1 to 7 eggs, the incubation period lasts about 30 days. Up to 1.5-2 months, the chicks are completely dependent on their parents, and in the fall the family breaks up. Birds reach puberty at 3 years old, and create their own families at 4-6 years old. In the wild, storks live about 20 years, in captivity they can live twice as long.

A nest of storks in a village near Nikolaev, Ukraine.

Storks in the nest.

Stork in the nest.

The most famous, numerous and widespread species of storks, one of the symbols of Belarus. Most of them nest in Europe and Asia and winter in India and Africa. Small populations of Western Europe and South Africa live settled.

The height of adults reaches 100-120 cm with a body weight of about 4 kg. The plumage is completely white, only the tips of the wings are black, the beak and limbs are red. Folded wings cover the back of the body, which looks black, which is why in Ukraine this bird is called chernoguz.

The white stork nests on the roofs of residential and outbuildings, power transmission poles, pipes of abandoned factories. The nests are gigantic, small birds nest in their walls - starlings, sparrows, wagtails. There are from 1 to 7 white eggs in the tray, incubation lasts for 33 days. Weak and sick chicks are mercilessly thrown out of the nest. Departure of young birds occurs 55 days after birth, after another 2 weeks, young birds become independent and, without waiting for their parents, go for the winter.

Stork on the rise.

White stork in the sky.

White stork in flight.

White stork in flight.

A bird also known as a black-billed, Chinese or simply Far Eastern stork. It was originally considered as a subspecies of the white stork, but has recently been isolated as a separate species. The population is about 3 thousand individuals, which are under the protection of Russia, China and Japan, as rare, endangered birds.

The nesting sites of the Far Eastern stork are located in the Amur Region and Primorye, on the Korean Peninsula, in Mongolia and northeast China. Birds spend winter in the rice fields and swamps of the southern regions of China.

Unlike the white stork, these birds are larger, their beak is black and more massive, and their legs are painted in intense red. The main difference is the patch of bare red skin around the eyes. These birds avoid people and make nests in swampy, hard-to-reach areas. Their nests are as tall and wide as those of the white stork. The clutch consists of 2-6 eggs.

Far Eastern white stork in flight.

Numerous, but little studied species, widespread in Eurasia. The largest number of birds is found in the swampy massifs of the Belarusian reserve Zvonets, in Russia the largest population lives in the Primorsky Territory. For wintering, black storks migrate to southern Asia, with the exception of birds living settled in southern Africa.

These storks are of medium size, about 100 cm high and weighing up to 3 kg. The color is black with a slight greenish or copper tint. The lower chest, belly and undertail are white. The limbs, beak and skin around the eyes are red.

The black stork eschews humans and nests in old dense forests near swamps and shallow ponds, sometimes in the mountains. Nests are built high and massive, clutch contains from 4 to 7 eggs. After 30 days of incubation, chicks hatch in turn, which are completely helpless for about 10 days. The ability to stand up appears only 35-40 days after birth, and young storks leave the nest at the age of 2 months.

The black stork catches a fish.

Black stork on the lake.

A species of storks living settled on the African continent from Ethiopia to South Africa. The bird population is quite numerous and nothing threatens its condition.

These are small storks, about 73 cm high and weighing no more than 1 kg. The birds got their name due to the white color of the chest and underwings, which form a contrast with the main black plumage. The white-bellied stork has an olive-gray beak. Its legs and eye area are red, and during the breeding season, the area of ​​bare skin at the base of the beak turns bright blue.

The local name of the bird is the rain stork, this is due to the beginning of nesting, which falls on the rainy season, when birds gather in large groups on rocky shores and trees. The clutch consists of 2-3 eggs.

White-bellied stork on a dried tree.

Numerous species of storks, widespread in Africa and Asia. Three subspecies live in the tropical forests of Kenya and Uganda, on the islands of Borneo, Sulawesi, Bali, Lombok and Java, the Philippines, Indochina and India.

The height of an adult stork is 80-90 cm. The birds are painted black with a reddish tint on the shoulders and green on the wings. The belly and undertail are white, and there is a black cap on the head. A distinctive feature of the white-necked stork is its snow-white lush plumage, resembling a scarf thrown over from the back of the head and neck to the middle of the chest.

White-necked stork in flight.

The white-necked stork spread its wings.

White-necked stork bathes.

South American species of storks living in a large area from Venezuela to Argentina.

These are birds of medium height, about 90 cm high and weighing 3.5 kg. Outwardly, they strongly resemble a white stork, but differ in a black forked tail, have red-orange patches of bare skin around the eyes and a white iris. Older birds can be identified by their bluish-gray beak.

Birds avoid dense forests, preferring to nest in bushes near the water. Nests are built at a height of 1 to 6 m, sometimes right on the ground. The clutch contains 2-3 eggs, newborn chicks are covered with white fluff, gradually darken and at 3 months they practically do not differ from their parents.

American stork in the sky.

One of the rarest storks, listed as an endangered species. The habitat covers the Mentawai Islands of Indonesia, Sumatra, Kalimantan, southern Thailand, Brunei and western Malaysia. Birds live secretly, often alone or in small groups, so photos of this species of storks are very rare.

These are small birds with a height of 75 to 91 cm. The color of the plumage is coal-black, the back of the head and undertail are white. The face of the birds is completely devoid of plumage and is covered with orange skin with wide yellow "glasses" around the eyes. Beak and legs are red. Nests are built small, only 50 cm wide and about 15 cm high. The offspring consists of 2 chicks that are able to fly already 45 days after birth.

Latin name- Ciconia nigra

English name-Black stock

Class- birds (Aves)

Detachment- storks (Ciconiiformes)

Family- storks (Ciconiidae)

The black stork is a rare, very cautious and secretive bird. Unlike its closest relative, the white stork, it always stays away from humans, settling in remote, hard-to-reach places.

conservation status

Despite its vast range, the black stork is certainly a rare, vulnerable species. In Russia, its numbers are steadily declining, the area suitable for nesting is decreasing, and the total number of the species in our country does not exceed 500 breeding pairs. The species is included in the Red Book of Russia and neighboring countries - Ukraine, Belarus, Kazakhstan. There are a number of international bilateral agreements on the protection of the black stork (with Japan, Korea, India, China).

View and person

The black stork avoids all contact with humans and is very sensitive to the anxiety factor. Only in some areas in the south and west of the range, the species became more tolerant of humans and began to settle near settlements and feed in farmlands.

Distribution and habitats

The range of the black stork is very large. It is distributed from Eastern Europe to the Far East, Korea and China. Isolated nesting sites exist on the Iberian Peninsula, in Turkey, the Caucasus, Iran, the foothills of Central Asia, and Southeast Africa.

In Russia, the black stork is distributed from the Baltic Sea and through the Urals along the 60-61 parallels and all of Southern Siberia to the Far East. There are separate isolated populations in Chechnya, Dagestan, Stavropol Territory. The largest number of black storks in Russia nest in Primorsky Krai, and the largest nesting population in the world lives in the Zvanets nature reserve in Belarus.

The black stork settles in the deaf old forests on the plains and in the foothills near water bodies - forest lakes, rivers, swamps. In the mountains rises to a level of 2000m.

Appearance

The size of the black stork differs little from its white relative. Its length is about 1 m, body weight up to 3 kg, wingspan - 1.5-2 m. The color is black with a strong metallic sheen (green, purple, bronze). Belly and underside of wings are white. The legs, unfeathered skin around the eyes and beak are red. Females and males are colored the same.

In young birds, the black color is replaced by brownish, without a metallic sheen; legs, beak and bare skin on the head are gray-greenish.

Lifestyle and social organization

The black stork is a migratory bird. Its main wintering grounds are in the tropical regions of Asia and Africa. Only in South Africa does an isolated sedentary population of this stork exist. They arrive at nesting sites in March-April, depart in September, do not form large clusters on migration.

In flight, the black stork stretches its neck forward and legs back. And he, like other types of storks, often soars freely in the air, spreading his wings wide. Perhaps the only way to see a black stork in nature is when it soars over the nest.

The black stork, like the white one, rarely gives a voice, but its "conversational" repertoire is much richer. In flight, he emits a loud, rather pleasant to the ear, cry, and hiss loudly during the mating season. The black stork also has coughing throat sounds and screams. But it cracks its beak, as white storks do, it is very rare.

Black storks are active only during the daytime.

Feeding and feeding behavior

It feeds mainly on fish, frogs, aquatic invertebrates. It feeds in shallow water, swamps, flood meadows near water bodies. The feeding area of ​​black storks is very large; they fly for food 5-10, and sometimes even 15 km from the nest.

On wintering grounds, it also feeds on small rodents, mollusks, large insects, and occasionally catches snakes and lizards.

Reproduction and parenting behavior.

Black storks are monogamous, and their pairs remain for life, however, outside the breeding season, partners keep independently of each other.

Black storks nest in single pairs, in the forest zone on trees at a height of 10-20 m above the ground, in mountainous and treeless areas - on rock ledges. The nest is built of large boughs, fastened with earth or turf and lined with grass. The nest is massive, renewed every year and sometimes reaches downright gigantic sizes - up to 1-1.5 m in diameter. One and the same nest of a pair of black storks takes several years (the case in Belovezhskaya Pushcha is known - 14 years). Sometimes the same nest is occupied by several generations of storks. However, there are several nests on the nesting site of storks, which the pair occupies alternately. Sometimes black storks settle in the nests of large birds of prey.

The mating season begins immediately after arrival in March-April. The male usually arrives first, renovates the nest and invites the female to it. At the same time, he throws his head on his back, fluffs the white feathers on the uppertail, whistles hoarsely and knocks with his beak. If a couple builds a new nest, then the male brings building material, and the female lays branches and fastens them with earth. The edges of the black stork nest are painted with white streaks of excrement, in contrast to the neater nests of large birds of prey.

In the clutch of a black stork, there are from 2 to 5 eggs, which the female lays with an interval of 2 days; eggs are dull white. Often 1-2 eggs in a clutch are unfertilized. Both birds incubate in turn, and incubation begins with the first egg. The incubation period lasts 32-46 days.

Hatched chicks of different ages are covered with thick white or grayish down; their beak is short and bright pink. Unlike adult birds, black stork chicks are quite noisy: they croak loudly, hiss and chirp. In the first 10 days of life, the chicks can only lie helplessly in the nest, then they begin to sit, and only on the 35-40th day of life are they able to stand in the nest. Parents feed them 4-5 times a day, regurgitating the brought food. The entire feeding period lasts 63-71 days.

Young black storks become sexually mature in the 3rd year of life.

Lifespan

In nature, according to ringing data, black storks live up to 18 years, in captivity - a record period - 31 years.

life in the zoo

There is one pair of black storks in our zoo. In summer they can always be seen in an aviary near the bird house, and in winter they spend most of their time indoors. In 2014 and 2015, the storks successfully bred, each year they fed 3 chicks. Adult storks incubated the clutch and fed the chicks on their own.

The diet of black storks in the zoo includes 350 g of fish, 350 g of meat, 2 mice and 5 frogs.

Large birds with a long, pointed beak belong to the stork family. The hind toe of the storks is poorly developed, the front three toes are connected at the base by a small swimming membrane. The vocal cords and membranes are reduced, so storks are almost dumb birds. They have no goiter, on the wing (on the first finger of the hand) there is a claw. In flight, stretch the neck forward.

This family includes 17 species of birds, united in 9 genera, distributed on all continents, but in North America they inhabit only the very south of the mainland. Most species live in the hot countries of the Eastern Hemisphere. There are 27 known fossil species of storks.

White stork(Ciconia ciconia) - large bird, on high legs, with long neck and long beak. Its weight is 3.5-4 kg, the wing length is 58-61 cm. The color of the plumage is predominantly white, the ends of the wings are shiny, black. When the wings are folded, it seems that the entire back of the bird's body is black, hence its Ukrainian name is chernoguz. Beak and legs are red. The bare skin around the eyes and the front of the chin are black. Females are slightly smaller than males and do not differ in coloration.

The white stork breeds in Europe north to southern Sweden and Leningrad, east to Smolensk, Bryansk and Orel, in Northwest Africa, in Asia Minor to Western Iran, in Transcaucasia, in Central Asia (eastern parts of Uzbekistan, Tajikistan). In addition, the white stork nests in the east of Asia, in the Amur and Primorye, south to Korea, and on the islands of Japan. White storks winter in Africa, south of the Sahara and in the southern part of the UAR, in Pakistan, India and Indochina, in Korea and in the southern part of the Japanese islands.

White storks are monogamous birds. The same pair of storks can nest in the nest they built for several years in a row.

The spring arrival of white storks occurs quite quickly. According to the observations of D.N. Kaigorodov, these birds occupy the nesting area in the European part of the USSR for 17 days, usually from March 23 to April 9. However, there are later and earlier dates of arrival. Males arrive earlier than females. According to European authors, the white stork, returning from African wintering, flies an average of 200 km per day.

For the first time, storks start nesting at the age of three (more than half of the nesting birds), but some begin to breed later, sometimes even at the age of 6 years. A small number of birds start breeding as early as 2 years of age.

After arrival, white storks settle down, as a rule, in a low-lying landscape, where there are vast wet meadows, swamps and stagnant reservoirs. They arrange nests on the roofs of houses, in trees located in villages or close to them. Recently, storks have been making nests on high-voltage line supports, on factory chimneys. If there are few places suitable for nesting, fights arise between birds.

Stork nests are bulky, usually have a diameter of at least a meter, and if an old nest is occupied, which is renovated and completed by storks, then the diameter can reach one and a half meters. The construction of a new nest takes about 8 days. It is built by both members of the couple. Occasionally, white storks build a second nest, which serves them for sleeping or as a guard post. Nests are also made by young, not yet nesting birds.

Sometimes charred rods, pieces of half-burnt branches or chips are found in the nests of storks, apparently picked up by birds at the place of a fire in a meadow or on a river bank. If the firebrand is not completely extinguished, the fire can be fanned by the wind, and in this way the stork “sets fire” to its nest. A similar case is described, for example, by A. V. Fedosov for Sevsk (Bryansk region). When the nest of storks, located at the very top of the roof of one bell tower, suddenly began to smoke, both adult birds began to throw down the burning rods and branches. The situation was saved only by the fire brigade arriving on time. Such cases probably served as the basis for the legend that storks, if the owner of the house destroys their nest, bring a burning firebrand in their beak and set fire to the house of the inhospitable owner.

In a full clutch there are from 2 to 5 eggs, most often 4-5, but sometimes storks incubate only 1 egg, rarely 7 eggs in a clutch. Apparently, the feeding conditions of the year influence the number of eggs in a clutch. In addition, young, first-time breeding birds lay fewer eggs than older ones. Eggs are white with a slight sheen.

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Their size is as follows: the long axis is on average 73.8 mm, the short one is 53.8 mm.

Eggs are not laid daily, but at intervals of 2 and sometimes even 3 days. Birds begin to incubate usually after laying the second egg. Both parents incubate for 33-34 days. The hatched chicks are helpless, but sighted, covered with white fluff. They sit in the nest for 54-55 days, and after leaving the nest, their parents feed them for another 14-18 days. Chicks become independent at the age of about 70 days.

Shortly before departure, white storks gather in small groups, sometimes in flocks; in wintering they sometimes stay in thousands of flocks. Departure begins in late August - September, sometimes delayed until October. Birds fly during the day and at high altitude, often resorting to soaring flight. They move south about two times slower than they flew in the spring. Individual birds sometimes remain in their nesting area for the winter, for example, in Denmark.

European storks have two main routes of autumn migration. Birds nesting west of the Elbe migrate to the Iberian Peninsula, cross the Strait of Gibraltar and then settle for wintering in western Africa in the steppe zone between the Sahara and the tropical rainforest region. About 4 thousand birds of Central European origin winter in this area, about 110 thousand from the Iberian Peninsula, 140 thousand storks from Morocco and about 50 thousand birds from Algeria and Tunisia. Approximately one third of the birds wintering in West Africa (nesting in Tunisia and eastern Algeria) fly directly south across the middle Sahara for wintering, while others, including European storks, fly through Morocco and the western parts of the Sahara.

Oriental storks, i.e. nesting in Europe east of the Elbe, are drawn to the Bosphorus in autumn, fly through Asia Minor and Palestine, then along the Nile Valley to Sudan and settle for wintering along a significant stretch of East Africa between southern Sudan and the Republic of South Africa. A small number of storks settle a little earlier: they can winter in Ethiopia and very few in South Arabia. Very many young storks stay for the summer in the area of ​​African wintering or linger on the spring migration 2000-3000 km from their homeland. Adult birds lingering on wintering grounds in South Africa may sometimes nest there. A small branch branches off the eastern flyway further east. By the northern shores of the Persian Gulf, it brings birds to northern India.

White storks make flights, using mainly soaring flight, and fly in a narrow front, choosing the most aerodynamically favorable terrain. Naturally, storks avoid flying over the sea.

White storks feed on animal food, eating frogs, lizards, various insects, mollusks, fish and small mammals: mice, voles, small hares and speckled ground squirrels. On occasion, they can grab a small bird or chick. When feeding, storks walk slowly, but, noticing the prey, they can quickly run up to it.

White storks sometimes produce a kind of "cleansing their ranks" in the fall. They slaughter weak birds to death. Apparently, this circumstance served as the basis for stories about the presence of “courts” among white storks, which end with the death penalty of the “guilty” bird.

The life expectancy of a white stork is approximately 20-21 years. In one zoo in the UAR, a tame stork lived to be 24 years old.

It is noted that in recent years in Western Europe there has been a decrease in the number of white storks in some places. So, they completely or almost completely disappeared in Switzerland. In this regard, the number of these birds was counted. A census of the number of white storks in the Soviet Union, carried out in 1958, made it possible to establish the presence in our country of 26,103 residential nests. This is probably an underestimate, but it still gives a good idea of ​​how many white storks we have nesting. There are very few storks in the Far Eastern part of the range. There it is apparently an endangered bird that deserves especially careful protection.

Black stork(C. nigra) is somewhat smaller than white: its wing length is on average 54 cm, weight is about 3 kg.

The plumage of this bird is predominantly black with a greenish and copper-red metallic sheen, the ventral side of the body is white. The beak, legs, throat, unfeathered spot on the bridle and around the eyes are bright red.

This stork is widely distributed. It breeds in the south of the Iberian Peninsula and then from Germany and the Balkan Peninsula to the east to the shores of the Sea of ​​Japan and Sakhalin. To the north, its nesting area extends to Leningrad, Tomsk and the Aldan basin. In the south, it is found to the shores of the Persian Gulf. In the south of the steppe part of the USSR and in the deserts of Central Asia, this bird is absent. Black storks winter in Africa, south of the Sahara (however, relatively few birds cross the equator), as well as in the Ganges basin and in southeast China.

The black stork is a forest bird. A prerequisite for its nesting is a combination of old forests or at least groups of old trees with hard-to-reach swamps of a diverse nature, open banks of rivers and lakes.

In most of its range, the black stork nests in sparsely populated areas that are difficult for humans to access.

Like all ankles, the black stork is a monogamous bird; it starts breeding at the age of three. Soon after the arrival, which occurs in late March - early April, the pair proceeds to build a nest, building it on tall, spreading trees, but usually not on the top, but on the side branches, 1.5-2 m from the trunk. Black storks do not form colonies. Their nests are usually located no closer than 6 km from one another, only in Eastern Transcaucasia they are located at a distance of only 1 km, and sometimes there are two residential nests on one tree. Nests are also arranged in rock niches and along high cliffs. The same nest serves black storks for a number of years. Thus, in Belovezhskaya Pushcha there is a known nest where black storks have bred their chicks for 14 consecutive years.

The nest is built from branches, sometimes so thick that the bird can hardly cope with them. With the help of sod, earth and clay, these branches stick together with each other. Compared to the nest of the white stork, the nest of the black one is neater and more skillful, it has a more or less regular hemispherical shape.

A full clutch of a black stork consists of 4 eggs, but sometimes more - up to 6 eggs, sometimes there are 2 or 3 eggs in a clutch. Eggs are laid with an interval of two days, and birds begin to incubate about a day after laying the first egg. Both male and female incubate. The duration of incubation in most cases is 35-46 days, but sometimes the chicks begin to hatch after 30 days of incubation. Often there are one or two unfertilized eggs (talkers) in the clutch, so there are usually fewer chicks in the nest than there were eggs.

The chicks hatch covered with thick white or slightly grayish down. Their beak is brightly colored, orange at the base and greenish-yellow at the end. For a long time (about 10 days), the chicks are in a lying position, then in a sitting position, and only at the age of 35-40 days they begin to stand on their feet. At the age of 50 days, already fully fledged, but still in the nest, they acquire a weight that exceeds the weight of their parents, then they lose some weight, since the parents feed them less intensively at this time. Young storks fly out of the nest at the age of 64-65 days.

Already in early August, families and small flocks of black storks begin to move south, but the flight can be delayed until late autumn.

Black storks feed on animal food. These can be fish (even up to 25 cm in size), frogs, various aquatic insects, and occasionally reptiles. Sometimes aquatic plants can also be found in the stomachs of these storks. The feeding areas of this bird are large. Storks often fly to feed at distances up to 5 km from the nest, there are cases when they had to fly even 10 km away. Parents feed their chicks 4-5 times a day, less often in rainy weather. In Belovezhskaya Pushcha, a case is known when an adult bird brought 48 frogs to its chicks at once with a total weight of 454 g.

During the flight, black storks, like white ones, constantly resort to soaring. The general appearance of a flying bird is as follows: wide wings, long legs thrown back, neck extended.

The genus belongs to the stork family stork(Anastomus), whose representatives are outwardly very similar to the white and black storks already described, but at first glance they are well distinguished from them by a more powerful beak and especially by the fact that when the beak is closed, a clearly visible gap between the mandible and mandible remains in its apical part. . Hence the name - razinya stork.

This genus includes 2 species. The Asiatic razini stork A. oscitans has white plumage with greenish-black flight and tail feathers, and a dull green beak. The Asiatic stork is smaller than all other storks. It is distributed in the south

Asia from India to South China and Thailand. It breeds in colonies, arranging nests on large bushes and trees growing near or in water. It feeds on freshwater mollusks and other invertebrates, as well as fish.

Breeds in Central and South America from Mexico to Argentina brazilian yabiru(Jabiru mycterica).

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it large stork. Its beak is long and slightly curved upwards at the end. The head and neck of the yabiru are not feathered and are dark bluish-black in color. The base of the neck is reddish-orange. The body is predominantly white.

The Brazilian yabiru places its huge nests on the tallest trees. It feeds on fish, frogs, worms and snails. Other species of jabiru inhabit South Asia, Australia and tropical Africa.

They differ greatly in appearance from other storks species of the genus marabou(Leptoptilus). African marabou(L. crumeniferus) - large heavy bird/

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When looking at it, a large, featherless head and a huge massive beak immediately attract attention. In a calmly sitting bird, the beak usually lies on a kind of pillow, which is a fleshy protrusion of the neck not covered with feathers. The plumage color of the African marabou is white, but the back, wings and tail are dark gray, blackish. Wing length 70 cm, beak 30 cm, weight 5-6 kg.

Marabu, or, as he is often called for his "solemn", military-type gait, adjutant, is widespread in tropical Africa. Marabou arranges their huge nests on trees, for example, on baobabs, sometimes even in villages. Often nests next to pelicans, forming mixed colonies.

The marabou feeds mainly on carrion, but on occasion it eats frogs, lizards, rodents and insects, in particular locusts. Often this bird can be seen hovering in the air, looking out for prey along with vultures. The vultures gathered on the carrion treat the flying marabou with great “respect”, since the blows of the marabou’s powerful beak are dangerous even for such large birds.

Two other species of marabou (L. dubius and L. javanicus) inhabit India and the islands of Indonesia up to Kalimantan. These marabou are similar to the African, but smaller.

Animal life: in 6 volumes. - M.: Enlightenment. Under the editorship of professors N.A. Gladkov, A.V. Mikheev - (Grallatores) a detachment of birds, very diverse in appearance, distinguished by more or less long and thin wading legs (see) (only rarely the lower part of the lower leg is feathered), living along the banks of rivers, lakes and seas, in swamps and rarely in fields. ... ...

Or stork-like (Herodines s. Ciconiae) a detachment of birds, which used to be connected together with waders and shepherds into one group of ankles (see. Ankles). C. are common in all zoogeographic regions. This includes five families: 1) ibis ... ... Encyclopedic Dictionary F.A. Brockhaus and I.A. Efron

This term has other meanings, see Stork (meanings). Stork ... Wikipedia

- (Ciconiidae), a family of storks. Length 76 152 cm. The beak is long, straight or slightly curved up or down. The wings are long and wide, some A. can soar for a long time. Most species are voiceless (there are no vocal muscles of the lower larynx) and ... ... Biological encyclopedic dictionary

When it comes to what the white stork eats, for some reason everyone first of all remembers frogs (remember yourself), although they are far from being the basis of his diet. This representative is unpretentious in food, he catches all kinds of small animals that are found under his feet - from worms to small rodents. It could only be swallowed. But, first of all, the stork feeds on a variety of insects; in dry areas, they can make up to 99 percent of the prey.

Storks swallow their prey whole. All sorts of small things are swallowed immediately, and large insects and rodents are first killed with beak blows, and then only eaten. Sometimes you can see how a stork, before eating, “chews” a caught mouse with its beak for a while, as if tasting it. He can play, then letting go, then grabbing her again, like a kitten. Large and dry prey, if there is water nearby, the stork is first rinsed in it for some time until it becomes such that it can be easily swallowed. Also, it first washes contaminated caught frogs and fish.

Birds are looking for prey on the ground or in shallow water. They do not like to go far into the water - it is rare when you see a stork at a depth of more than 20-30 centimeters. Hunting techniques can be varied. More often, storks are actively looking for prey. Everyone knows the picture: a stork, decorously pacing in the grass. At the same time, he can make sudden throws, then freeze in place, and sometimes even beats his wings. Often, birds accompany herds of cows, herds of horses, working tractors or combines.

A favorite feeding place for storks is fresh mowing. You can see these birds even at the strip of fire in the grass. We rarely do this, but in Africa, storks like to gather where the locals burn the savannah during the dry season. It is enough for them to see smoke, as birds from everywhere begin to flock to the conflagration, concentrating behind the wall of fire. They walk on the still-smoking burnt stems and catch insects. Sometimes hundreds of birds gather at such fires. Storks also fly in on a freshly plowed field, collecting worms and insect larvae.

Another hunting option is waiting for prey, which is typical for herons. The stork is able to guard near the mouse hole, waiting for one of its inhabitants to put forward its nose. As a rule, the duration of such waiting does not exceed a few minutes, but once a bird was observed that “watched” a mouse hole for 20 minutes. In muddy shallow waters, the stork often hunts “by touch”: it leads the water with its beak, quickly closing and opening it until it comes across a tadpole or something else. He collects earthworms by probing the soft ground with his beak. A stork can also catch flying prey, such as dragonflies or other insects. Sometimes even knocks them down with wings. When kept in captivity, he quickly learns to grab food thrown to him with his beak, as dogs do.

Among the insects in the stork's diet, there are such dangerous pests as the Kuzka beetle, the bug-turtle, various beetles, and the beet weevil. But most of all he loves the so-called orthoptera. These include grasshoppers, crickets, spinning tops and the notorious locust. On wintering grounds in Africa, storks eat so many locusts that in the languages ​​of a number of African tribes, the white stork is called “locust eater”, or “locust bird”. The glory of the exterminator of this dangerous pest is so fixed on him that in Afrikaans (the language of the white population of the Republic of South Africa) even one of the official scientific names of the white stork is “large locust bird”. However, it is justified to some extent for Ukraine. In the past, there were many devastating "raids" of locusts on the southern provinces. Even now, despite the huge arsenal of chemical means of combat and the use of aviation, in a matter of days it can turn flowering lands into a barren desert. One can imagine what a disaster the locust was for the peasants in the past.

The stork does not give way to another "favorite" of the peasants - a spinning top or "cabbage". Having a garden, can tell a lot about it. As studies have shown in various European countries, from Spain to the former USSR, spinning tops make up from 5-10% to a third in the stork's diet in summer. Ornithologist A.P. Nettle studied the diet of the white stork in Belovezhskaya Pushcha. It turned out that in the food that adult birds brought to their chicks, spinning tops made up about 8% by number and almost 14% by weight. In one portion brought to the connector, there were as many as 113 bears! In the Masurian Lake District (Poland), 31% of the white stork contained the remains of click beetle larvae (wireworms), 14% of weevils, and 16% of spinning tops.

In years with outbreaks of mouse-like rodents, they are eaten in large numbers not only by white storks, but also by black storks, which feed mainly on small fish and other aquatic animals. So, according to F.I. Strautman, in 1946, in the Irshava district of the Transcarpathian region, during a surge in the number of mouse-like rodents, several specimens of mice and voles were found in the stomachs of hunted black storks.

The hunting efficiency of storks is quite good. According to estimates made in Poland, one bird caught 44 mice, 2 young hamsters and one frog in an hour, the second caught 25-30 crickets per minute! Conducted by scientists, continuous observations of one stork showed that he caught at least 1037 different animals over 10.5 hours, an average of 1.6 per minute. The hunting success of birds depends on the conditions of the area and the type of prey, but on average, about half of the attacks are effective.

The daily requirement of an adult stork is about 700 grams of food. In the summer, in order to feed themselves and raise an ever-hungry crowd of chicks, birds have to search for prey for almost the entire daylight hours. According to estimates by Polish ornithologists, a medium-sized stork family - a pair of adult birds and 2-3 babies - consumes about 2.5 centners of food during the period of feeding chicks. To raise offspring, storks must receive daily about one and a half kilograms of earthworms, a kilogram of frogs, or 700 grams of small rodents.

Apparently, it was not in vain that a belief arose among the people that a village in which many storks nest might not particularly worry about a good harvest. According to scientists, it was the destruction of locusts and many other dangerous pests that was one of the reasons why in the distant past the stork was respected as a sacred bird.

V.M.Gryshchenko (www.birdlife.org.ua)

General characteristics and field signs

Large bird with long legs, neck and beak. Body length 100-115 cm, wingspan 155-165 cm, weight of an adult bird from 2.5 to 4.5 kg. Males are slightly larger than females, but outwardly they are almost indistinguishable. The plumage is white, the flight feathers are black. Beak and legs are red. When observing a flying bird, attention is drawn to the elongated neck and legs, contrasting black and white plumage. Walks on the ground, slightly shaking his head in time with the movement. On nests or perches, it can stand on one leg for a long time, pulling its neck into the plumage of the body. Often uses a soaring flight, with almost no wing flapping, it is able to rise in ascending air currents. With a sharp decline and landing - a little presses the wings to the body and puts the legs forward. Flocks form during migration, they are also formed by non-breeding birds during migrations in late spring and summer. There is no strict order in flying flocks. When descending from the updraft, the birds slide down one by one. It differs from the black stork by its white plumage, from cranes and herons by the red color of its beak and legs. Unlike herons, in flight it stretches rather than folds its neck.

Voice. The basis of the sound communication of white storks is beak crackling. Occasionally a hiss can be heard. The sound repertoire of chicks is more diverse. The cry of a stork begging for food resembles a drawn-out meow. The first part of this cry has a higher pitch, the second one has a lower one. In chicks on the nest, you can also hear a loud squeak and hiss; already in the first weeks of life, the chicks try to crack their beak.

Description

Coloring. Adult male and female. There are no seasonal differences in color. Most of the plumage is white, primary feathers, outer secondary, shoulder and part of forearm coverts are black with a metallic sheen. The outer webs of secondaries have grayish margins along the trunk (character varies, usually visible only at close range). The feathers on the neck and chest are somewhat elongated; excited birds (for example, during mating) often fluff them. Beak and legs are bright red. The naked skin around the eye and the front of the skin of the chin are black. The iris of the eye is brown.

First down outfit. After hatching, the chick is covered with sparse and short grayish-white down. The legs are pinkish, becoming greyish-black after a few days. The beak and skin around the eyes are black, the skin on the chin is reddish, the iris is dark. The second down outfit. The down is pure white, thicker and longer. Replaces the first one in about a week.

Nest outfit. A young bird is similar in color to an adult, but the black color in plumage is replaced by brownish, without shine. The beak and legs are dark brown; by the time the chicks leave the nests, they usually become reddish-brown, but it is not uncommon to see flying fledglings with a black beak or brown with a blackish top. The iris of the eye is grey.

Structure and dimensions

As a rule, measurements of various parts of the body of storks are published, without dividing the sample into sex groups. The wing length of the nominative subspecies of the white stork with this approach for the territory of the former. The USSR is, for 6 individuals, 585-605 mm (Spangenberg, 1951), for Ukraine (Smogorzhevsky, 1979) - 534-574 mm. The last author also reports that the length of the tail ranges from 206-232 mm, the beak -156-195, and the tarsus - 193-227 mm. The revision of the collections of the Zoom Museum of the Kyiv National University and the National Natural History Museum of Ukraine gave the following results: wing length (n = 14) - 513-587 mm, with an average value of 559.9 ± 5.8 mm; tail (n = 11) - 201-232, on average 222.5±4.2; beak (n = 12) - 150-192, on average 166.4±3.5; tarsals (n = 14) - 187-217, on average 201.4 ± 2.5 mm (original). For the Asian white stork, the wing length for 9 measured individuals turned out to be 550-640, with an average of 589 mm.

The sizes of the white stork by sex groups and subspecies for different territories are given in Table. 31.

Table 31. Sizes (mm) of various sex groups and subspecies of the white stork

Parameter	males			females			Source
	n	lim	M	n	lim	M
Ciconia ciconia ciconia. Europe
Wing length	—	530-630	—	—	530-590	—	Witherby et al., 1939
tail length	—	215-240	—	—	215-240	—	Witherby et al., 1939
Beak length	—	150-190	—	—	140-170	—	Witherby et al., 1939
Lantern length	—	195-240	—	—	195-240	—	Witherby et al., 1939
Wing length	18	556-598	576	15	543-582	558	Hancock et al., 1992
tail length	18	221-268	247	15	218-256	237	Hancock et al., 1992
Beak length	18	157-198	179	15	155-180	164	Hancock et al., 1992
Lantern length	18	191-230	214	15	184-211	197	Hancock et al., 1992
Ciconia ciconia asiatica. middle Asia
Wing length	18	581-615	596	9	548-596	577	Hancock et al., 1992
Beak length	18	188-223	204	9	178-196	187	Hancock et al., 1992
Lantern length	18	213-247	234	9	211-234	220	Hancock et al., 1992

The formula of the wing (excluding the rudimentary first flywheel) is IV?III?V-I-VI... The outer webs of the II and IV primary feathers have clippings. The tail is slightly rounded, there are 12 tail feathers. The beak is long, straight, tapering towards the top. Nostrils long, slit-like. The weight of 41 males from Vost. Prussia 2 900-4 400 g (average 3 571), 27 females - 2 700-3 900 g (3 325). Weight increases slightly during the summer. The average weight of 14 males in June is 3341 g, 14 females - 3150 g; in July-August, 12 males weighed an average of 3970 g, 12 females - 3521 g (Steinbacher, 1936).

The male, therefore, is somewhat larger than the female, has a longer and more massive beak. In addition, the bill of the male has a slightly different shape: the mandible is slightly curved upwards in front of the apex, while the bill of the female is straight (Bauer and Glutz von Blotzheim, 1966; Creutz, 1988). The sex of 67% of birds can be determined from the length of the beak with an error probability of no more than 5% (Post et al., 1991). Individual recognition of birds by the pattern of a black spot on the chin is also possible (Fangrath and Helb, 2005).

Moult

Not studied enough. In young birds, the complete post-juvenile molt begins, depending on the circumstances, from December to May of the first year of life. In adult birds, a complete molt takes up most of the year. Primaries alternate in irregular sequence throughout the nesting period, some in winter (Stresemann and Stresemann, 1966).

The molting of flight feathers was traced in more detail on 5 storks kept in a nursery in Switzerland (Bloesch et al., 1977). The feather grows at a linear rate. Primary flywheels grow 8-9 mm per day, secondary - 6.5-6.9 mm. It takes from 50-55 to 65-75 days to replace the fly feather. In the birds under observation, 6 primary primaries and 13 secondary primaries on both wings were replaced per year. The duration of wearing different feathers is different; for primary primaries, it ranged from 1.2 to 2.5 years. The change of feathers is stepwise. In primary primaries, it starts from XI, in secondary ones, from several points. Moulting cycles begin from the second year of life, their final course is established only by 4-5 years. During the first or third molt, the change of feathers began in March-April, then in mid-May and continued until early November. Most of the feathers were replaced during the summer months between incubation and departure.

The combination of molting and nesting may be due to the fact that the load on the wings of the white stork at this time is much less than during a long migration or nomadic life on wintering grounds (Creutz, 1988).

Subspecies taxonomy

There are 2 subspecies, differing in size and shape of the beak:

1.Cicortia cicottia ciconia

Ardea ciconia Linnaeus, 1758, Syst. Nat., ed. 10, p. 142, Sweden.

Smaller form. The length of the wing of males is 545-600 mm, the length of the tarsus is 188-226 mm, the length of the beak is 150-200 mm. The beak is less sharply sloping towards the apex (Stepanyan, 2003). Distributed in Europe, North. Africa, Zap. Asia.

2. Ciconia ciconia asiatica

Ciconia alba asiatica Severtzov, 1873, Izv. Imp. islands of lovers of natural science, anthropology and ethnography, 8, no. 2, p. 145, Turkestan.

More large form. The length of the wing of males is 580-630 mm, the length of the tarsus is 200-240 mm, the length of the beak is 184-235 mm. The beak, especially the mandible, is more sharply sloping towards the apex (Stepanyan, 2003). It lives on the territory of Uzbekistan, Kazakhstan, Tajikistan and Kyrgyzstan.

Notes on systematics

Previously, the Far Eastern stork (Ciconia boyciana) was considered a subspecies of the white stork, but at present it is considered by most taxonomists as an independent species. Special studies have shown significant morphological and behavioral differences sufficient to separate the species (Hancock et al., 1992). The subspecies belonging of the population of the white stork from Transcaucasia requires special study.

Spreading

Nesting area. Europe, North-West. Africa, Zap. and Central Asia (Fig. 78).

Figure 78.
a - nesting area, b - wintering areas, c - main directions of autumn migration, d - directions of expansion.

The European subspecies is distributed over most of Europe from the Iberian Peninsula to the Volga region and Transcaucasia. To the north, its range reaches Denmark, South. Sweden, Estonia, northwest Russia. In France, storks live only in a few provinces, so nesting sites in Spain, Portugal, Zap. France and North-West. Africa are cut off from the main European range. However, in connection with the ongoing resettlement, it is quite likely that these two parts of the range will merge. In the North-West. Africa, the white stork breeds in Morocco, northern Algeria and Tunisia. In Zap. Asia - in Turkey, Syria, Lebanon, Israel, Iraq, Iran, in Transcaucasia - in the south of Georgia, in Armenia, Azerbaijan, as well as in the Republic of Dagestan of the Russian Federation. Breeding cases are also known at wintering grounds in Yuzh. Africa (Broekhuysen, 1965, 1971; Broekhuysen and Uys, 1966; Hancock et al., 1992). In 2004, an attempt was made to nest in the north-east of England in the county of Yorkshire. This is the first time the white stork has bred in Britain since 1416, when the birds nested on Edinburgh Cathedral.

In Russia, the white stork has long inhabited the territory of the Kaliningrad region. In other areas, it appeared relatively recently, expanding its nesting range to the east and northeast. The first cases of nesting in the modern borders of the Leningrad and Moscow regions. noted at the end of the 19th century. (Malchevsky and Pukinsky, 1983; Zubakin et al., 1992). By the beginning of the XX century. the white stork began to nest in the Pskov, Tver and Kaluga regions. (Zarudny, 1910; Filatov, 1915; Bianchi, 1922). By this time, it was already quite common in the western regions of Smolensk (Grave, 1912, 1926) and the southern part of the Bryansk region. (Fedosov, 1959). Settling into new territories had a wave-like character. Especially intensive development of new areas was noted in the 1970s-1990s. At present, on the territory of Russia, the northern and eastern border of the regular nesting of the Eastern European population can be conditionally drawn along the line St. Petersburg - Volkhov - Tikhvin - Yaroslavl - Lipetsk - Voronezh - the border of the Rostov Region. and Ukraine (Fig. 79).

Figure 79
a - regular nesting, b - insufficiently clarified border of the nesting range, c - irregular nesting. Subspecies: 1 - S. s. ciconia, 2 - C. s. asiatica.

Periodic evictions of individual couples were noted far beyond the indicated border: in Yuzh. Karelia, Kostroma, Nizhny Novgorod, Kirov, Perm, Ulyanovsk, Penza, Saratov, Volgograd and Rostov regions, Krasnodar region (Lapshin, 1997, 2000; Bakka et al., 2000; Borodin, 2000; Dylyuk, Galchenkov, 2000; Karyakin, 2000; Komlev, 2000; Mnatsekanov, 2000; Piskunov and Belyachenko, 2000; Sotnikov, 2000; Frolov et al., 2000; Chernobay, 2000a and others). The West Asian population of the nominative subspecies is common in the Tersko-Sulak lowland of Dagestan (Babayurtovsky, Khasavyurtovsky, Kizlyarsky, Tarumovsky districts), periodically nests appeared outside Dagestan - in the Stavropol Territory, Karachay-Cherkessia, Proletarsky District of the Rostov Region. (Khokhlov, 1988a; Bicherev and Skiba, 1990). White storks were also registered in the foothills of the North. Ossetia (Komarov, 1986). Rostov oblast, obviously, is a territory where East European and West Asian populations practically converge from different directions. The first penetrates here from the north along the Don and from the west - from Ukraine, the second - from the southeast along the Kumo-Manychka depression. Confirmation of the last, the most poorly understood direction of bird movement, can serve as a meeting on May 13, 1996 in the area of ​​Lake. Dadinskoye, in the extreme northeast of the Stavropol Territory, flocks of 18 birds migrating at high altitude in a northwestern direction (Dylyuk, Galchenkov, 2000).

In Ukraine, the modern boundary of the range passes through the North. and North-East. Crimea, southern parts of Zaporozhye and Donetsk regions, Lugansk region. (Grishchenko, 2005). In 2006, the first white stork nesting was recorded in the southeast of Crimea near Feodosia (M.M. Beskaravainy, pers. comm.).

The Turkestan white stork is distributed in Central Asia - in the southeast of Uzbekistan, in Tajikistan, Kyrgyzstan, in the south of Kazakhstan. Previously, the range reached Chardzhou in Turkmenistan, the lower reaches of the Amu-Darya; cases of nesting were also noted in the west of China - in Kashgaria (Spangenberg, 1951; Dolgushin, 1960; Sagitov, 1987; Shernazarov et al., 1992). Occasionally, nesting attempts - obviously, already a European subspecies - are noted in the southeast of Turkmenistan (Belousov, 1990).

A small nesting center of the white stork (about 10 pairs) arose in the extreme south of Africa. Birds start nesting here in September-November - at the time of arrival for wintering of storks of northern populations (del Hoyo et al., 1992). As in the case of the black stork, this micropopulation originates from migrants who, for some reason, began to breed on wintering grounds.

wintering

The main wintering grounds for the western population of the European subspecies are the sub-Saharan savannas from Senegal in the west to Cameroon in the east. The most important places of concentration of wintering birds are the valleys of the rivers Senegal, Niger and the area of ​​Lake. Chad. Storks also winter here, nesting in northwestern Africa. The eastern population winters in Vost. and Yuzh. Africa from Sudan, Ethiopia and Somalia to South Africa. Most of the birds spend winter months in Tanzania, Zambia, Zimbabwe, South Africa. Storks from Zap. Asians winter partly in Africa, partly in southern Asia. The Asian subspecies winters mainly in India south to Sri Lanka. To the east, these birds can be found as far as Thailand (Schulz, 1988, 1998; Ash, 1989; Hancock et al., 1992). In India, the main wintering grounds for storks are the states of Bihar in the northeast and Gujarat in the west (Majumdar, 1989). Interestingly, birds ringed in Europe have also been found in India (Lebedeva, 1979a). Apparently, these are storks that have gone astray in the Iskander Bay area - they did not turn south, but continued to migrate to the southeast.

Some birds winter in the southern part of their breeding range. In Spain during the winter seasons of 1991 and 1992. in the delta About 3,000 individuals were counted in the Guadalquivir and on the coast of Andalusia (Tortosa et al., 1995). In Portugal in the winter of 1994/95. 1,187 storks wintered (Rosa et al., 1999). Thousands of storks stay in Israel for the winter (Schulz, 1998). In Armenia, hundreds of birds winter in the Araks valley every year (Adamyan, 1990). In Bulgaria, storks remained for the winter at the end of the 19th century, now their number has increased significantly. Flocks of up to 10 individuals are noted (Nankinov, 1994). Wintering cases are also known in more northern latitudes - in Ukraine (Grishchenko, 1992), in the Czech Republic (Tichy, 1996), Germany, and Denmark (Schulz, 1998). On the territory of Russia, wintering of white storks was noted in Dagestan (T.K. Umakhanova, V.F. Mamataeva, pers. comm.). In Central Asia, storks winter in small numbers in the Ferghana Valley (Tretyakov, 1974, 1990). Here in the area of ​​Pungan - Urgench in the winter months of 1989, up to 250 birds were recorded. It is believed that the partial settlement of white storks in the Fergana Valley contributed to the overall increase in their number in the region. Winterings, which are irregular in nature, were observed in the Syr-Darya valley and on the river. Panj to Yuzh. Tajikistan (Mitropolsky, 2007).

Ringed in the former In the USSR, white storks were found wintering mainly in South Africa, some birds - in Ethiopia, Sudan, Uganda, Kenya, Namibia, Zap. Africa (Lebedeva, 1979; Smogorzhevsky, 1979).

As established by X. Schulz (Schulz, 1988), the distribution of storks on wintering grounds in Africa is determined primarily by food supplies. First of all, birds choose wet biotopes, but they can also stay in arid places rich in food. Large flocks are found even in deserts and mountains. In Lesotho, in 1987, a flock of 200 storks was discovered at an altitude of approx. 2000 m. Birds fed on reservoirs abounding with amphibians. In places rich in food, storks can accumulate in large numbers. In January 1987, about 100 thousand individuals were counted in Tanzania on a plot of 25 km2. The birds fed on alfalfa fields, where the caterpillars of one of the local butterflies bred en masse. In Yuzh. In Africa, white storks were almost never seen this season.

Based on the results of ringing and satellite telemetry, it was established that the wintering areas of the western and eastern populations are not isolated from each other. To the Center. In Africa, there is a zone of mixed wintering, where birds from both populations are found. Here, individuals from one population may be carried away by flocks of storks from another population and return in spring by a different route and to other nesting sites (Berthold et al., 1997; Brouwer et al., 2003).

Migrations

The white stork is a long-distance migrant. Birds from the northeastern part of the range fly over 10,000 km. There are two main geographical populations of the European subspecies, differing in migration routes and wintering areas. The dividing line between them passes through Holland, the Harz, Bavaria, the Alps (Schuz, 1953, 1962; Creutz, 1988; Schulz, 1988, 1998). Birds nesting to the west of it migrate southwest in autumn through France, Spain, Gibraltar. Further, the flight goes through Morocco, Mauritania, the western part of the Sahara. These birds winter in the West. Africa. Storks nesting east of this dividing line fly in the southeast direction in autumn, and from Russia, Ukraine, Belarus and the Baltic states - in a southerly direction. Three main flyways pass through the territory of Ukraine in autumn, which merge into a powerful migration flow that passes along the western coast of the Black Sea (Gryshchenko and Serebryakov, 1992; Grischtschenko et al., 1995). Further, storks fly through the Balkans and Turkey, through the Bosphorus, Asia Minor. From Iskander they go to the Mediterranean coast, where they turn south again and migrate in a narrow stream through Lebanon, Israel, the Sinai Peninsula to the Nile Valley. Along this river and the Rift Valley, there is further migration to the main wintering grounds in Vost. and Yuzh. Africa. In Vost. Sudanese storks make a long stop for 4-6 weeks and feed intensively to replenish fat reserves to continue their migration (Schulz, 1988, 1998).

The stork, as a land soarer, avoids a long flight over the sea, so migratory flows are formed along the coasts. Storks from the western, northern and central regions of Ukraine migrate along the western coast of the Black Sea and through the Bosporus, and birds from the East. Ukraine fly southeast to the eastern coast of the Black Sea. Storks from the eastern part of their range in Russia also fly here. Some of the storks, although insignificant, still fly directly across the sea. There is an "intermediate" flyway through Italy and Sicily to Tunisia. In 1990-1992 1,378 migrating storks were recorded at Cape Bon in Tunisia and 67 near Messina in Sicily (Kisling and Horst, 1999). It is assumed that birds from both western and eastern populations use this route (Schulz, 1998). An individual ringed in Latvia was discovered in September near Naples (Lebedeva, 1979). And one stork with a satellite transmitter flew across the Mediterranean directly from St. Tropez in France to Tunisia; the distance across the sea was at least 752 km (Chemetsov et al., 2005). Perhaps some of the storks fly across the Black Sea, crossing the Crimea.

Migrations of storks from Transcaucasia, Iraq and Iran have not been studied enough. It is assumed that they fly southeast to Yuzh. Asia (Schtiz, 1963; Schulz, 1998). A bird ringed in Armenia was found in the Nakhichevan Autonomous Soviet Socialist Republic, 160 km to the southeast (Lebedeva, 1979). The dividing line between populations migrating to Africa and Asia is not yet known. Apparently, it takes place somewhere in the east of Turkey. At least in this region, flocks of birds migrating both to the southeast and to the west are observed in autumn (Schtiz, 1963).

Turkestan storks migrate south through Afghanistan to India in autumn, crossing the Hindu Kush via the Salang Pass (Schtiz, 1963; Schulz, 1998). Ringed storks in Uzbekistan were harvested in the spring in Afghanistan and Pakistan (Lebedeva, 1979).

An analysis of satellite tracking of 140 German storks showed that the paths and dates of migration, wintering and stopping places can change in these birds within a fairly wide range, but, if possible, they remain constant. Changes are caused by natural factors, primarily feeding conditions (Berthold et al., 2004). The timing of departure from wintering places depends on the meteorological situation. Under adverse conditions, birds may linger. Thus, in the extremely unfavorable year 1997, storks started from their wintering grounds a month later than usual (Kosarev, 2006). Added to this was a delay due to prolonged cold weather in the Middle East. Storks equipped with transmitters made long stops in Syria and Turkey. A return migration has been noted (Kaatz, 1999). As a result, in 1997, only 20% of birds from the eastern population arrived at normal times, the majority - with a delay of 4-6 weeks (Schulz, 1998).

From wintering places, mass movement in the opposite direction occurs at the end of January or in February. In Israel, the beginning of the spring migration of adult birds becomes noticeable in mid-February, the peak of passage falls on the second half of March, especially noticeable movements end at the end of April; young birds migrate through Israel in April-May (van den Bossche et al., 2002). In the nesting areas in northern Africa, storks appear as early as December-February. The peak of flying over Gibraltar is noted in February-March, over the Bosphorus - from the end of March to the end of April (Schulz, 1998).

In Moldova, arriving storks have been observed since the first decade of March (Averin et al., 1971). On the territory of Ukraine, arrivals are registered from the first days of March to the second half of April, the average dates of arrival fall on the third decade of March - the beginning of April. First of all, birds appear in the Lviv and Chernivtsi regions, flying around the Carpathians; then the migration goes in two streams: some birds fly to the northeast, others - to the east along the southern regions of Ukraine. Storks appear later than anything else in the eastern regions and in the Crimea (Grishchenko and Serebryakov, 1992; Grischtschenko et al., 1995). In the north of the Sumy region. arrival was recorded from March 18 to April 26, the average date for 16 years is March 30 (Afanasiev, 1998). In the south-west of Belarus, the arrival of storks is noted in the third decade of March - the first half of April (Shokalo, Shokalo, 1992). Storks nesting in the European part of Russia reach their homeland in early March - the first half of May. On the territory of the Kaliningrad region. in the first half of the 20th century. the first birds appeared on the nests between March 19 and April 12 (data for 23 years, Tischler, 1941). In the 1970s the arrival of storks took place from the beginning of March (Belyakov, Yakovchik, 1980). In 1990, the first birds on nests in the Kaliningrad region. recorded March 18 (Grishanov, Savchuk, 1992). In the Sebezhsky district of the Pskov region. arrival was observed at the end of March-the first decade of April (Fetisov et al., 1986). For the period from 1989 to 1999. the earliest registration in the Kaluga region. recorded March 20 (1990), the latest - April 8 (1991 and 1997), on average March 30. In some years, the earliest birds appear in the spring when the snow cover height in the fields is 30-40 cm. falls on the second five days of April (1990-1999) (Galchenkov, 2000). In the Voronezh region the first storks were observed at the same time: from March 19 to April 8, on average March 30 (1995-1998) (Numerov, Makagonova, 2000). Storks arrive at the northeastern border of their range 2-4 weeks later. In the Yaroslavl region birds arrived on April 22-26 (1994), April 16 (1996), May 2 (1995) (Golubev, 2000). In the eastern regions of the Leningrad region. the earliest arrival was recorded on April 20, 1999 (Tikhvinsky district), the usual dates are from May 1 to May 8 (1983-1999) (Hrabry, 2000). In the southern regions of Karelia, the first birds appear in late April - mid-May; in the very early spring of 1990, a solitary bird was seen at the beginning of the second decade of April (Lapshin, 2000). In the Kirov region the earliest record of a white stork is April 17, 1992. (Sotnikov, 2000). On the Black Sea coast Sev. Caucasus, spring migration is observed from the first decade of March to the second half of April, in the Rostov region. and Krasnodar Territory, the first birds were recorded in April (Kazakov et al., 2004). In Dagestan, the first individuals appear in early and mid-March (Mamataeva and Umakhanova, 2000).

The appearance of white storks in spring in Central Asia occurs at the end of February - beginning of March, and is observed almost simultaneously in most of the territory (Dementiev, 1952; Mitropolsky, 2007). At the Chokpak Pass they were registered on March 11-14, 1974 (Gavrilov, Gistsov, 1985), an intensive passage was noted on March 24 (Sema, 1989).

In the Kaluga region in 69% of cases, the arrival of the white stork proceeded according to the 1 + 1 scheme: first, one bird from a pair arrived, and some time after it, the second. The first individual appears from March 20 to May 18, on average (n = 176) - on April 10, the second - from March 25 to May 26, on average (n = 150) - on April 14. The delay of the second bird occurs in the range from several hours to 31 days, on average, by 4 days. In the specified arrival pattern, there are rare variants: at the first, each of the individuals of the pair flies up with one or two other birds, which do not remain on the nest, but fly further; at the second, a couple flies to a single stork and drives it out. In 31% of cases, two birds flew to the nest at once.

Breeding birds of the Eastern European population leave in August. Juveniles usually leave earlier than adult birds. In the Kaluga region the young left the nests starting from August 8, more often in the second decade of this month. Adult birds leave their homeland later, the departure of the last individuals ends on average on August 30 (1985-1999) (Galchenkov, 2000). In the Tver region storks fly away on August 28 - September 5 (Nikolaev, 2000). In the Yaroslavl region the birds flew away on August 23 (1996) and August 29 (1995) (Golubev, 2000). Individuals and pairs linger until September - October. In the southwestern regions of Russia, before departure, they form clusters of tens and up to 100 or more individuals, as, for example, in the Smolensk region. (Bicherev and Barnev, 1998). On Sev. In the Caucasus, autumn migration is observed from the first half of August to the end of September (Kazakov et al., 2004). The migration routes and wintering areas of Dagestan storks have not been clarified: it is known that the last of them leave the nesting area from October 25 to November 10, sometimes lingering until the middle or end of this month (November 25, 2003 and November 15, 2004). Most likely storks , nesting in the Tersko-Sunzhenskaya lowland, follow along the western coast of the Caspian Sea, where birds of this species were noted on October 23, 1998 near the city of Kaspiysk (E.V. Vilkov, pers. comm.).

In Moldova, departure begins at the end of August and continues until mid-September. Individual birds may linger until the first half of October. The latest meeting is November 9, 1964 (Averin, Ganya, Uspensky, 1971). In Ukraine, the first migratory flocks are observed from the first ten days of August to September and early October. The average departure dates are in the third decade of August - the first decade of September. First of all, the flight begins in the Lvov, Zhytomyr and Poltava regions. The last birds were observed from the second half of August to October. The average dates of the last observation in most regions of Ukraine fall on the first and second decades of September. The longest storks linger in the Zaporozhye region. and in the Crimea (Grishchenko and Serebryakov, 1992; Grischtschenko et al., 1995). Some late individuals may also be observed in November. Sometimes you can meet whole flocks very late. So, on December 4, 1985, a flock of several dozen storks was observed over Ivano-Frankivsk (Shtyrkalo, 1990). On November 5, 1997, a flock of 40 individuals was seen over Brest (Shokalo, Shokalo, 1992). The passage along the eastern coast of the Black Sea was recorded from August 29 to October 4 (Abuladze, Eligulashvili, 1986).

Central Asian storks fly from late August to mid-October (Dolgushin, 1960; Tretyakov, 1990).

Flight of three young storks marked on nests in Zelenogradsky and Guryevsky districts of the Kaliningrad region. satellite transmitters, was tracked in 2000. One bird left for wintering on August 10, the other two - on the 14th. The flyway passed through northeastern Poland, the extreme southwest of Belarus, the western part of Ukraine, the east of Romania and Bulgaria, then through the Bosphorus, Turkey, Palestine, and the Sinai Peninsula. The storks reached the Bosphorus Strait on August 23, 25 and 26, respectively, i.e. 13, 11 and 12 days after the start of migration. There were storks at the southern tip of the Sinai Peninsula on August 29, 31, and September 1, respectively (19, 17, and 18 days after the start of migration, or 6 days after each bird crossed the Bosporus); here the storks stopped. The storks then proceeded along the Nile Valley in continental Egypt. The rapid movement to the south of the birds stopped on 6, 7 and 10 September, by this time two of them were in the center. Sudan, one in eastern Chad near the Sudanese border (Chemetsov et al., 2004).

During autumn migrations, according to telemetry data, the average length of daily movements of storks of the eastern population is: in Europe - 218 km (for adult birds from 52 to 504, for young birds - from 51 to 475 km), in the Middle East - 275 km (for adult birds from 52 to 490, for young people - from 55 to 408 km), in the North. Africa - 288 km (for adult birds from 70 to 503, for young birds - from 108 to 403 km) (van den Bossche et al., 1999).

A comprehensive study of the migrations of the white stork showed that this species, at least in its eastern population, has a very special type of migration, not yet known for other birds. It is characterized by a very fast flight from nesting sites to a resting area in Vost. Africa. A distance of 4,600 km, both adults and young birds overcome an average of 18-19 days. Under normal conditions, storks fly every day, spending 8-10 hours on the way. Long, especially many-day stops occur only as an exception and are primarily associated with adverse weather conditions. In storks, unlike others migratory birds, fat reserves during migration are negligible. There is no noticeable hyperphagia during the flight. Storks practically do not regain weight all the way to Africa (Berthold et al., 2001).

Most immature storks spend the summer months away from nesting sites. After the first wintering, the birds migrate towards the nesting area, but very rarely reach it. Only a third of one-year-old storks were found closer than 1000 km from the place of ringing. With age, the proportion of "defectors" is rapidly decreasing. A significant part of 1-2-year-old storks spend their summers south of the Sahara, but 3-year-old birds are not found there at all during the nesting period. Ringing has shown that in most cases storks first appear at nesting sites at 3 years of age (Libbert, 1954; Kania, 1985; Bairlein, 1992).

Migratory storks can be found much to the north and east of the border of the nesting range. In Russia, they were noted on the coast of the White Sea in the Murmansk region. (Kokhanov, 1987), near s. Kholmogory in the Arkhangelsk region. (Pleshak, 1987), in Bashkiria (Karyakin, 1998a), Tatarstan (Askeev, Askeev, 1999), Perm region. (Demidova, 1997; Karyakin, 19986), Sverdlovsk region. (Zelentsov, 1995), in the steppes of Yuzh. Ural (Davygora, 2006). According to insufficiently reliable data, two birds were observed in August in the Kurgan region. (Tarasov et al., 2003). Flights of white storks are also recorded in Finland, Sweden, Norway, Great Britain, Ireland, and Iceland (Hancock et al., 1992; Birina, 2003). During migration, real invasions can occur when large flocks are far from the main flyways. So, on September 15, 1984, a flock of 3,000 storks appeared near the city of Abu Dhabi in the east of the Arabian Peninsula (Reza Khan, 1989). On August 27-29, 2000, an accumulation of 300-400 individuals kept in the valley of the river. Teberda to the North. Caucasus (Polivanov et al., 2001). Sometimes migratory flocks of storks are carried by the wind far into the sea. Such birds have been observed even in the Seychelles, which lie over 1,000 km from the African coast (Stork, 1999).

habitat

The white stork is a typical inhabitant of open landscapes; avoids continuous forests and overgrown swamps. Prefers areas with wet biotopes - meadows, swamps, pastures, irrigated lands, rice fields, etc. It is also found in the steppes and savannahs with single large trees or human structures. The optimal biotope in our conditions are vast floodplains with normal hydro regime and extensive agricultural use. In such places, the population density can reach tens of pairs per 100 km2. Inhabits, as a rule, flat territories, but can also nest low in mountains with suitable conditions.

To the Center. In Europe, white storks rarely nest above 500 m a.s.l. m (Schulz, 1998). In the Carpathians, they rise to 700-900 m (Smogorzhevsky, 1979; Rejman, 1989; Stollmann, 1989), in Armenia and Georgia - up to 2,000 m a.s.l. (Adamyan, 1990; Gavashelishvili, 1999), in Turkey up to 2300 m (Creutz, 1988), and in Morocco even up to 2500 m a.s.l. (Sauter and Schiiz, 1954). In Bulgaria, 78.8% of stork pairs nest at altitudes between 50 and 499 m a.s.l. and only 0.2% - from 1000 to 1300 m (Petrov et al., 1999). In Poland, the dispersal of storks to higher altitudes during population growth has been noted (Tryjanowski et al., 2005). The white stork prefers to feed in open areas with low grassy vegetation, in shallow water of stagnant and slow-flowing reservoirs. Rarely found on the banks of large rivers, mountain streams. Arable land and intensively cultivated meadows and fields of perennial grasses are also used by storks for feeding, but the favorable period for gathering food in such places is very short - immediately after plowing or harvesting.

Stork nests are found on the periphery of the colonies of herons and other legged birds. But most often it nests in settlements. It can settle even among dense buildings in large cities, from where it has to fly for food for 2-3 km. The white stork usually leaves villages abandoned by people. So, these birds stopped nesting in most of the evicted villages of the Chernobyl zone (Samusenko, 2000; Gashek, 2002).

During migration, the white stork also prefers open landscape; tries to fly around large bodies of water and forests, since, as we believe, flying over them with a specialized soar requires more expense energy.

population

The total number of white storks according to the results of V International accounting in 1994-1995 can be estimated at least at 170-180 thousand pairs, of which the eastern population accounts for 140-150 thousand pairs (Grishchenko, 2000). Compared to the previous census in 1984, the total population has grown by 23%. Moreover, the number of the western population increased significantly more - by 75%, the eastern one - by 15% (Schulz, 1999). The largest number of white storks was recorded in Poland. In 1995, about 40,900 pairs were recorded there, 34% more than in 1984. The average breeding density in Poland is 13.1 pairs/100 km2 (Guziak and Jakubiec, 1999). In Spain, where the bulk of the western population breeds, numbers were estimated at 18,000 pairs in 1996. This country has seen the most growth, more than doubling between two international censuses (Marti, 1999).

According to the preliminary results of the VI International Survey, held in 2004-2005, the total number of white storks is estimated at 230 thousand pairs. The largest number is in Poland - 52.5 thousand pairs, followed by Spain - 33.2 thousand pairs, Ukraine - approx. 30 thousand pairs, Belarus - 20.3 thousand pairs, Lithuania - 13 thousand pairs, Latvia - 10.7 thousand pairs, Russia - 10.2 thousand pairs. The largest increase in the number was noted in France - 209%, Sweden - 164%, Portugal - 133%, Italy - 117%, Spain - 100%. Decreased (halved) the number only in Denmark. There are only 3 slots left. For the Asian subspecies, data are given only for Uzbekistan, where 745 pairs were counted; the number decreased by 49%.

According to materials collected in Russia in 1994-1997, as well as expert estimates for areas where the survey was not carried out or was incomplete, the total number of the breeding group was at least 7,100-8,400 pairs (Cherevichko et al., 1999). The Kaliningrad and Pskov regions are most densely populated by storks. - respectively, 2,371 and 1,910 pairs. in the Bryansk region. about 600 pairs were recorded, however, most likely from 800 to 1,000 pairs nested here; at least 600 pairs bred in the Smolensk region. (449 pairs were noted in 12 western out of 25 administrative districts of the region). in the Kursk region. 325 pairs were counted, in Novgorod - 316, in Tver - 200-230, in Kaluga - about 200, in Leningrad - at least 100 pairs. From several dozen to 100 pairs lived in the Orel and Belgorod regions, in the Moscow region. 23 pairs were counted, in Voronezh - 10, Yaroslavl - 15-20, Lipetsk - 5, Ryazan - 216, Kirov - 1, Mordovia - 1 pair (Galchenkov, 2000a; Golubev, 2000; Dylyuk, 2000).

In the course of the VI International accounting, according to preliminary data, it was taken into account: Kursk region. - 929 pairs (+186% compared to the V International accounting, data by V. I. Mironov), Bryansk region. - 844 (+31%, S. M. Kosenko), Kaluga region. - 285 (+58%, Yu. D. Galchenkov), Leningrad region. - 160 (+344%, V.G. Pchelintsev), Oryol region. - 129 (S. V. Nedosekin), Moscow region. - 80 (+248%, M. V. Kalyakin).

The current abundance in Armenia is estimated at 1-1.5 thousand pairs, in Azerbaijan - 1-5 thousand pairs, in Moldova - 400-600 pairs (Birds in Europe, 2004).

During the 20th century, the number of white storks has undergone significant changes (see Grishchenko, 2000). In the first half of the century (and in some places even earlier) its rapid reduction began in many European countries. By the end of the 1940s. in Central Europe, it has almost halved. Held in 1934, 1958, 1974, 1984 international records of the white stork showed a steady decline in the number of occupied nests. So, if in 1907 in Germany there were 7-8 thousand breeding pairs (Wassmann, 1984), then by 1984 their number had decreased to 649 in the FRG (Heckenroth, 1986) and 2,724 in the GDR (Creutz, 1985) . in the Netherlands in the 19th century. the white stork was one of the common birds, there were thousands of nests in the country. But already in 1910 there were only 500 breeding pairs left, the number continued to rapidly decrease: 209 pairs in 1929, 85 in 1950, 5 in 1985 (Jonkers, 1989). After 1991, not a single “wild” pair remained at all, only birds released from special nurseries nested (Vos, 1995). Storks stopped nesting in Belgium, Switzerland, Sweden, came to the verge of extinction in France, Denmark and some other countries. The most vulnerable was the western population of the white stork. According to the data of the IV International Survey in 1984, in just 10 years its number decreased by 20%, the eastern population - by 12% (Rheinwald, 1989).

A radical change in the situation began in the 1980s, primarily in Spain. Around 1987, the number of storks began to grow. Over 11 years, it increased by more than 2.5 times and soon exceeded the level of half a century ago (Gomez Manzaneque, 1992; Martinez Rodriguez, 1995). The population also increased more than twice in Portugal (Rosa et al., 1999). All this was due primarily to climatic reasons. In the second half of the 1980s. finally ended a long period of drought in the Sahel zone, which significantly worsened the wintering conditions of the western population of the white stork. Contributed to the growth of numbers and a significant improvement in the food supply at the nesting sites. In Spain, for example, the area of ​​irrigated land has increased; in addition, the South American crayfish Procambarus clarkii, which is readily eaten by storks, has taken root in the canals (Schulz, 1994; 1999). In Spain and Portugal, many more birds began to stay for the winter, which also reduced mortality (Gomez Manzaneque, 1992; Rosa et al., 1999). The surge in the number of white storks in the Iberian Peninsula contributed to the rapid growth of the entire western population. Soon, the rise in the number and resettlement of these birds began in France, and the connection with the processes that took place in Spain was proved: in 1990 and 1991. found storks nesting on the Atlantic coast of France, and ringed in Spain. It is assumed that some of the storks nesting in the departments along the coast of the Bay of Biscay settled from Spain. Storks from Alsace, Switzerland and the Netherlands appeared in the northeast and in the center of France. In the department of Charente-Maritime a stork nested in 1995, ringed in 1986 by a chick in Poland. The rapid resettlement of storks in Holland, Switzerland, Italy, Germany and other countries was also noted. in France from 1984 to 1995. population increased by 830% (Duquet, 1999).

The eastern population did not have such sharp jumps in numbers as the western one, but its positive trend was noted. Let us emphasize that with a general decrease in the number, the eastward dispersal of storks in Russia and Ukraine continued and its growth near the border of the range. The increase in the size of the eastern population began approximately at the same time as the western one, although the growth rate was much lower. The situation in the Asian subspecies also changed almost simultaneously. From 1984 to 1994, the number of white storks in Central Asia increased by more than 7 times (Shemazarov, 1999), and by 2005 the number of these birds is estimated at 700-1,000 breeding pairs (Mitropolsky, 2007).

According to monitoring data on permanent sample plots in Ukraine, in the 1990s. there has been a wave of population growth. It was outlined already in the first half of the 1990s, somewhat earlier in the north-east of Ukraine, and later in the western regions. In 1992-1994 in the villages along the river Seim in the Sumy region. there was an increase in the number of 25-30% annually (Grishchenko, 1995a, 20006). Since 1994, the average increase in Ukraine has been increasing all the time (a decline was noted only in 1997, which is extremely unfavorable for the white stork throughout Europe), reaching a maximum in 1996 and 1998. - respectively 13.7±2.9 and 16.3±3.6%. Then the growth rate began to decrease, and in 2001-2003. the population has stabilized. (Grishchenko, 2004).

During the same period, eastward settlement intensified in the eastern regions of Ukraine and Russia. In the Kharkov region by 1994, a shift of the range boundary to the east was noted compared to the distribution in 1974-1987; in 1998, nests were found on the right bank of the river. Oskol (Atemasova, Atemasov, 2003). In the Lugansk region, where the white stork met east to the river. Aidar, in 1998, 2 nests were found in the floodplain of the river. Derkul on the border with Russia (Vetrov, 1998). In the Rostov region in 1996, storks nested again after a 5-year break - a nest was found in the Manych valley (Kazakov et al., 1997). In the Krasnodar Territory, storks began nesting in the mid-1990s. (Mnatsekanov, 2000). In 1993, nesting was first recorded in the Kirov region. (Sotnikov, 1997, 1998), in 1994 - in the Tambov region. (Evdokishin, 1999), in 1995 - in Mordovia (Lapshin, Lysenkov, 1997, 2000), in 1996 - in the Vologda region. (Dylyuk, 2000). In 1996, a sharp increase in the number of birds (by 20.1%) was noted in the Kaluga region. (Galchenkov, 2000).

reproduction

Daily activity, behavior

The white stork is a diurnal bird, however, there are cases of feeding chicks on bright nights (Schuz, Schuz, 1932). At night, birds can be active on the nest: copulations, plumage care, change of incubating partners, etc. were noted. Blotzheim, 1966). Large flocks are most often crowded, disordered; birds fly at different heights (Molodovsky, 2001).

On the ground, the white stork moves in steps, rarely runs. Active flight is rather heavy, with slow wing beats. Under favorable conditions, it prefers soaring, especially when flying over long distances. In the ascending currents, clusters of birds gaining altitude are often formed. The white stork can swim, although it does so reluctantly. With a favorable wind, it is able to take off from the water surface (Bauer and Glutz von Blotzheim, 1966; Creutz, 1988).

During the non-breeding period, the white stork leads a flocking lifestyle. During nesting, colonies and aggregations may also form at feeding grounds. Non-breeding birds in the summer stay in flocks, the number of which reaches tens and even hundreds of individuals. They stay in food-rich places, leading a wandering lifestyle. The number of such flocks gradually increases from May to June, in July their size increases noticeably; they become even more numerous in August due to the formation of pre-migratory aggregations. According to observations in the Kaluga region. in the 1990s, the average number of birds in summer flocks was: in May - 3.4 individuals, in June - 4.0, in July - 7.8, in August - 10.5 (n = 50). Broods after departure are combined into flocks, which gradually become larger in the course of migration. So, if in Ukraine the usual size of migratory flocks in autumn is tens, less often hundreds of individuals, then already on the Black Sea coast of Bulgaria the average size of a flock is 577.5 individuals (Michev, Profirov, 1989). In the Middle East and in the North-East. In Africa, huge aggregations exceeding 100 thousand individuals are often noted (Schulz, 1988, 1998). It has been established that the efficiency of migration (speed of movement, wind drift compensation, etc.) is higher in large flocks (numbering several thousand individuals) than in small groups or in individual birds (Liechti et al., 1996).

Storks rest mainly at night. During the nesting period, the amount of time left for resting and cleaning feathers depends on the abundance of food and the number of chicks. With its abundance, storks can rest for hours during the day or clean their plumage. The pose of a resting bird is very characteristic: the stork most often stands on one leg, pulling his head into his shoulders and hiding his beak in the fluffy plumage of his neck. As a rule, storks rest on high perches with good overview- on dry trees, poles, roofs.

White storks use a rather unusual method of thermoregulation - they defecate on their feet. On a hot day, you can see many birds with white "stockings" on their paws. Apparently, liquid uric acid evaporates, cooling the surface of the tarsus. Her skin is richly penetrated by blood vessels, passing through which the blood is cooled (Prinzinger and Hund, 1982; Schulz, 1987). As experiments on the American wood stork (Mycteria americana) have shown, with intensive defecation on the legs, the body temperature decreases (Kahl, 1972). X. Schulz (Schulz, 1987), observing storks in Africa, found that the frequency of bowel movements depends on air temperature. The temperature threshold after which birds with dung-splattered feet begin to meet regularly is approximately 28 °C. At 40 °, the frequency of bowel movements already reaches 1.5 times per minute. White litter, in addition, shields the legs from the scorching rays of the sun. In cloudy weather, the frequency of bowel movements decreases. Observations in Ukraine have shown that in nesting areas storks also begin to use this method of thermoregulation at a temperature of about 30 °C (Grischtschenko, 1992).

When white and black storks and herons feed together, the white stork dominates (Kozulin, 1996).

Food

The nutrition of the white stork is very diverse. It eats various small animals from earthworms to rodents and small birds: leeches, mollusks, spiders, crustaceans, insects and their larvae, fish, amphibians, reptiles, etc. Can destroy the nests of ground-nesting birds or catch a hare. Even small predators, such as the weasel (.Mustela nivalis) have been recorded in the diet (Lohmer et al, 1980; Shtyrkalo, 1990). The size of prey is limited only by the ability to swallow it. The diet depends on the conditions of the area and the number of hunting objects. In dry places, it can almost entirely consist of insects; in meadows and marshes, their proportion is much less. So, according to E. G. Samusenko (1994), in Belarus, the proportion of various groups of animals in the diet of the white stork varies significantly. In the floodplains of the Sozh and Berezina, invertebrates accounted for 51.6-56.8% in frequency of encounters, and up to 99% in non-floodplain biotopes.

Storks swallow their prey whole. Small animals are swallowed immediately, large insects and rodents are first killed by blows of the beak. Sometimes you can see how a white stork for some time, as it were, “chews” a captured vole or mole with its beak. If there is water nearby, the bird rinses large dry prey for some time until it can be easily swallowed. In the same way, storks wash mud-stained frogs or pbi6y (Creutz, 1988).

Undigested food remains are regurgitated in the form of pellets. The pellets are formed within 36-48 hours. They consist of chitinous remains of insects, wool and bones of mammals, scales of fish and reptiles, bristles of worms, etc. The size of the pellets is 20–100 × 20–60 mm, weight 16–65 g. In nestlings, they are somewhat smaller, 20–45 × 20–25 mm (Creutz, 1988; Muzinic and Rasajski, 1992; Schulz, 1998).

Storks feed in various open biotopes - in meadows, pastures, swamps, banks of water bodies, fields, vegetable gardens, etc. Favorite feeding places are areas with disturbed vegetation or soil layer, where small animals deprived of shelters become easy prey. The effectiveness of hunting in such situations can be very significant. Thus, in Poland, a stork feeding behind a wheat harvester caught 33 rodents in 84 minutes (Pinowski et al., 1991). It has been observed in the Elbe floodplain in Germany that the highest hunting efficiency (on average 5 g of prey per minute) was during or immediately after haymaking (Dziewiaty, 1992). Therefore, clusters of feeding storks can be seen on fresh hayfields, in cultivated fields, and even among burning grass. In Africa, these birds congregate where the locals burn the savanna during the dry season. It is enough for them to see smoke, as storks flock from everywhere, concentrating behind a wall of fire. They pace the still-smoking stalks and catch insects. Sometimes hundreds of individuals congregate at such conflagrations (Creutz, 1988). Storks willingly accompany herds of livestock or wild animals on pastures. Ungulates scare small animals, facilitating their prey. In meadows, storks most often feed in areas with low grass or in shallow water bodies. They rarely wander deeper than 20-30 cm. Storks collect earthworms most often after rains, when they crawl out to the surface, or in freshly plowed fields. They willingly feed on irrigated fields abounding in earthworms. Although the number of insects is higher in high vegetation, the hunting efficiency of the white stork is reduced. For example, in Austria it was 61% in vegetation 25 cm high and 52% in plants 25-30 cm high (Schulz, 1998).

The main way the white stork hunts is to actively search for prey. The bird paces measuredly over the grass or shallow water, now slowing down, then accelerating; can make sharp throws or freeze in place. Less commonly, storks lie in wait for prey, primarily rodents and large insects. Birds collect food on the ground, in shallow water, less often on plants. They can also catch flying animals with their beaks - dragonflies, beetles and other insects. Sometimes they even knock them down with their wings. Storks kept in captivity quickly learn to grab food thrown to them with their beak on the fly. There have even been reports of storks successfully hunting passing sparrows and other small birds (Niethammer, 1967; Creutz, 1988; Berthold, 2004). The bird gropes for earthworms and other soil invertebrates with its beak, plunging it into the ground for several centimeters (Schulz, 1998). Storks have also been observed to grab fish from the surface of the water in flight (Neuschulz, 1981; Schulz, 1998).

According to research by P. Sackl (Sackl, 1985, cited in: Schulz, 1998) in Austria, the average speed of movement of a stork during feeding is 1.7 km/h. At the same time, he takes from 1 to 90 steps per minute, an average of 39.3. The time of stalking prey varies from 10.5 to 720 seconds, averaging 151.8 seconds. Occasionally, birds can freeze in place for up to 12 or even 20 minutes. A feeding stork makes an average of 5.3 pecks per minute, of which 4.0 are successful. When feeding tadpoles and young frogs in shallow water in the floodplain of the river. In the Sava in Croatia, the peck rate was 5.9 per minute, of which 2.9 were successful (Schulz, 1998).

The bird detects prey most often visually. Sometimes, in muddy shallow water, white storks also use tact location, similarly to storks of the genus Mycteria (Luhrl, 1957; Rezanov, 2001). According to the observations of A. G. Rezanov (2001) in the south of Ukraine, sounding of muddy water and muddy bottom was carried out non-stop with a slightly ajar beak. Storks walked in shallow water, making 43-89 steps per minute, constantly probing the bottom in front of them. 98.9% of the pecks were one-off tactile probings. Feeding success was 2.3%.

Storks can also eat dead animals, such as dead fish or chicks killed during haymaking, and even eat garbage. in Spain in the 1990s. they have mastered the landfills and now feed there along with gulls and corvids. Some birds even overwinter in landfills (Martin, 2002; Tortosa et al., 2002).

Storks feed both singly and in flocks. In places rich in food, huge aggregations can form, which sometimes reach tens of thousands of individuals during wintering. Moreover, in aggregations, the feeding efficiency of storks increases, since they are better protected from predators and spend less time looking around (Carrascal et al., 1990).

During the nesting period, storks forage, as a rule, near the nest, but they can fly for food even several kilometers away. The success of reproduction largely depends on the distance to the main forage grounds. Studies on the Elbe in Germany have shown that the average distance from the nest to foraging sites is inversely proportional to the number of chicks reared (Dziewiaty, 1999). A significant correlation was found between the number of hatched chicks and the proportion of wet meadows, swamps, and water bodies in the nesting territory (Nowakowski, 2003). According to observations from one of the nests in Silesia in Poland, birds flew for food most often to several preferred places located at a distance of 500 to 3375 m, with an average of 1900 m (Jakubiec, Szymocski, 2000). Observations of another pair in Pomerania in northern Poland showed that the storks were feeding on an area of ​​about 250 hectares. In more than half of the cases, they searched for prey in a few preferred sites, which accounted for only 12% of the total area. 65% of the time they fed in meadows and pastures, 24% in the fields and 11% in the pond. The maximum flight distance for prey is 3,600 m, the average is 826 m. In 53% of cases, storks fed no further than 800 m from the nest. They flew farthest when the chicks were already grown. Interestingly, the male and female differed in their preferences, feeding mainly in different places (Oigo and Bogucki, 1999). On the Elbe, in 80% of cases, storks foraged no further than 1 km from the nest (Dziewiaty, 1992). The maximum foraging distance determined for ringed birds in Zap. Europe is 10 km (Lakeberg, 1995).

An analysis of 242 food samples collected during the non-breeding period in Ukraine showed that amphibians and shield insects are of the greatest importance in spring, orthoptera and various beetles in August. Storks feed chicks mainly with amphibians and insects at various stages of development. Of the insects, Orthoptera and beetles are of the greatest importance; in total, representatives of 19 families of 3 orders were found in the diet (Smogorzhevsky, 1979).

In pellets collected in the upper reaches of the Kyiv Reservoir. in the Chernihiv region, 96.1% of the fragments from the total number belonged to the remains of arthropods. Moreover, the nutrition of storks was very diverse: up to 130 species of animals were found in one pellet, including such small ones as ants. Insects were dominated by Coleoptera (35.3%), Hymenoptera (21.0%) and Caddisflies (19.6%). Vertebrates played only a minor role in nutrition (Marisova, Samofalov, Serdyuk, 1992).

According to the analysis of 337 pellets collected in the southern and central parts of Belarus in 1986-1992, the main food of the white stork was invertebrates - 99% of the total number of certain specimens of food objects. Aquatic beetles and bedbugs, mass species of ground beetles, inhabiting predominantly humid habitats, and molluscs predominated. In settlements, the share of small mammals and insects, characteristic of dry biotopes, increases (Samusenko, 1994). M. I. Lebedeva (1960) in pellets collected in Belovezhskaya Pushcha found 80 specimens among 187 food items. molluscs, 75 - insects, 24 frogs, 8 viviparous lizards. Of the insects, 42 dragonflies, 20 larvae of swimming and water beetles, 9 bears, 2 grasshoppers, 1 caterpillar were found. According to A.P. Krapivny (1957), in the diet of white stork chicks in Belovezhskaya Pushcha, 72.5% by weight were vertebrates, of which 60.6% were frogs. The proportion of earthworms was only 1%.

In the Kaluga region entomological analysis of the pellets showed the presence of representatives of 17 species belonging to 7 families of the Coleoptera order. The most common were representatives of the family of ground beetles (Carabidae) - 41%. Next come the scarab beetles (Scarabaeidae) - 22%, water beetles (Hydrophilidae) - 15%, leaf beetles (Chrysomelidae) and rove beetles (Staphylinidae) - 7% each, swimmers (Dytiscidae) and false elephants (Anthribidae) - 4% each. The presented species of beetles were mainly inhabitants of moderately wet and dry meadows, as well as anthropogenic landscapes, and were characteristic of the soil surface - 44%, inhabited small ponds and puddles or were dung beetles - 19% each; they were followed by beetles, inhabiting fields and living on vegetation, as well as inhabiting mixed forests and living on bark and leaves - 7% each. In the Tver region representatives of 7 families of beetles were recorded in food, most of which are lamellar and ground beetles (61.3%) (Nikolaev, 2000).

In Masuria in Poland, out of 669 collected pellets, 97.3% contained insect remains (representatives of the families Carabidae, Silphidae, Dytiscidae, Scarabeidae predominated), 72.2% - small mammals (mainly moles, mice and voles), 1.6% - molluscs, 1.0% - small birds, 0.7% - amphibians. The proportion of insects in the diet was highest in the fields during the growth of cereals and alfalfa and in mowed meadows and fields after harvesting, rather high in plowed fields (Pinowski et al., 1991). In Austria, during the nesting period, orthopterans (67.7%) and beetles (24.1%) prevailed in food in terms of quantity, vertebrates (55.5%), primarily small rodents (33.2%), in weight. Among insects, storks preferred locusts, ground beetles, leaf beetles and horn beetles. In April-June, the diet was more varied, with a predominance of small rodents; in July-August, Orthoptera predominated (Sackl, 1987). The diet of summer flocks of non-breeding birds in meadows in Poland was dominated by insects (83%), primarily beetles, by biomass - small mammals, mainly voles (58%), insects (22%) and earthworms(11.5%) (Antczak et al., 2002). Studies in Greece showed a wide variability of the diet in different habitats, but insect remains, primarily orthopterans and beetles, dominated in the pellets (Tsachalidis and Goutner, 2002).

The diet of storks can vary from year to year, depending on weather conditions. So, in the north of Germany in 1990, when there was a surge in the number of mouse-like rodents, the latter accounted for 59.1 and 68% of the food weight in two areas where studies were carried out, and in 1991 - only 3.6 and 3, eight%. In the very wet year of 1991, earthworms predominated in the diet - 50 and 61.6% by weight (Thomsen and Struwe, 1994). In the south of Germany in different years the weight fraction of earthworms in the diet of the white stork ranged from 28.9 to 84%, arthropods - from 8.9 to 28.5%, leeches - 0 to 51.9%, rodents - from 1.5 to 55.2%, frogs - from 1.2 to 5.4% (Lakeberg, 1995).

One of the main groups of insects that the white stork feeds on are orthoptera, primarily locusts. It is most important in the diet in the wintering areas in Africa, and therefore in the languages ​​of some African peoples the white stork is called the "locust bird". Storks can eat a huge amount of locusts, sometimes overeating so that they cannot fly. During a locust raid on Hortobágy in Hungary in 1907, about 1,000 specimens were found in the digestive tract of one of the captured storks. locusts. The stomach and esophagus of the bird were stuffed to the very throat. In one of the stork pellets, 1,600 locust mandibles were found (Schenk, 1907). According to the latest author, a flock of 100 storks is capable of destroying 100 thousand copies per day. these dangerous pests. In nesting areas, the white stork also destroys a large number of pests. Agriculture, especially the bear (Gryllotalpa gryllotalpa), weevils, wireworms. According to A.P. Krapivny (1957), in Belovezhskaya Pushcha, in the diet of chicks, bears made up 8% by number and almost 14% by weight. In the Masurian Lake District in Poland, 31% of the pellets contained remains of wireworms, 14% of weevils, and 16% of mole crickets (Pinowska et al., 1991). In Zap. In France, the food that storks brought to chicks was dominated by water beetles and bears (Barbraud and Barbraud, 1998).

When kept in captivity, the daily food requirement of an adult stork ranges from 300 g in the warm season to 500 g in winter. A bird needs 110-130 kg per year (Bloesch, 1982). The daily energy requirement of a pair of storks feeding their chicks is estimated at 4,660 kJ. This amount gives the consumption of 1.4 kg of earthworms, 1044 g of frogs or 742 g of small rodents (Profus, 1986). According to other data, a pair with 1-2 chicks consumes about 5200 kJ (B5hning-Gaese, 1992). On the river Sava in Croatia, a pair of storks daily brought to chicks at the age of 3-6 weeks an average of 1.4 kg of food per chick (Schulz, 1998), in northern Germany (chicks aged 3-8 weeks) - 1.2 kg (Struwe, Thomsen, 1991).

For the white stork, the most energy-efficient food is vertebrates. In humid habitats, these are usually amphibians. However, due to land reclamation and hydrotechnical works, their number in many countries has significantly decreased. Thus, the diet of a pair of storks under observation in the Swiss Jura consisted of earthworms by 2/3, while vertebrates accounted for only 0.4% (Wermeille and Biber, 2003). In such conditions, rodents are becoming increasingly important for storks. Observations in the valley of the river. Obras in western Poland showed that breeding success and even the number of nests occupied were higher in years with high abundance of the common vole (Microtus arvalis) (Tryjanowski and Kuzniak, 2002).

Enemies, adverse factors

The white stork has few natural enemies. Nests can be destroyed by large birds of prey, corvids, martens. Adult birds become victims of attacks by eagles, sea eagles, large four-legged predators - foxes, stray dogs, wolves, etc. However, the death of most adult white storks is directly or indirectly related to humans.

Power lines are responsible for most of the deaths. In 1986-1989 in Ukraine, out of 489 deaths of adult storks with a known cause, 64.0% were attributable to power lines. Among the victims of power lines, 80.8% died on poles from electric shock and 19.2% crashed on the wires. Power lines pose the greatest danger to young poorly flying birds: 72.8% of deaths occur in storks that have recently left the nest. In second place was the direct destruction of people - 12.7%. 8.8% of storks died as a result of fights on nests and during the formation of flocks before departure, 7.6% - due to adverse weather conditions, 2.9% - due to pesticide poisoning, 1.6% - due to collisions with transport, 1.2% - due to diseases, 0.8% - from predators, 0.4% - due to falling into large pipes. Thus, in total, only 18.4% of storks died for reasons not related to human activity. The main reason for the death of chicks (742 cases with a known cause) is the throwing of chicks by parents from nests. It accounts for 41.9%. 20.2% of chicks died due to adverse weather conditions, 12.9% - due to falling nests, 7% - in fights between adult storks on nests, 6.2% - destroyed by humans, 4.5% - due to for the burning of nests, 2.7% - as a result of the death of parents, 2.0% died from predators, 1.5% - poisoned, 1.1% - died due to materials brought into the nest (Grishchenko, Gaber, 1990).

In the Kaluga region the picture is somewhat different. According to the data collected in 1960-99, the main cause of death of adult birds is poaching. It accounts for 74% of cases with an established cause of death (n = 19). In 21% of cases, birds died on power lines, 1 time an adult bird died during a fight for a nest with other storks. The main reason for the death of fledglings is contact with electrical communications: from electric shock on open transformers and power transmission poles, as well as from a collision with wires. Some cases of loss of young birds shortly after leaving the nests should probably be attributed to poaching. Such differences are connected with the fact that in the territories recently inhabited by storks, the attitude of people towards them is much less favorable. There are even cases of destruction of nests that have appeared. Thus, the first nest in Mordovia was destroyed by local residents because of fears that storks would damage cucumber crops (Lapshin, Lysenkov, 1997). In the Nizhny Novgorod region the main cause of nest death is human persecution (Bakka, Bakka, Kiseleva, 2000). The destruction of adult birds and the destruction of nests was noted in the south-east of Turkmenistan, where storks tried to nest in the 1980s. (Belousov, 1990). However, even in those regions where the white stork has been living for a long time, the attitude of the local population towards it has changed for the worse. This is evidenced by at least a high percentage of the destruction of birds by people among the causes of death and the destruction of nests on the pylons of power lines.

Among the reasons for the death of chicks, as mentioned above, parental infanticide is in the first place. A significant part of the chicks is thrown out of the nests or even eaten by adult storks. So, in Belovezhskaya Pushcha, almost 30% of pairs threw out chicks, and sometimes even all chicks of the brood were destroyed (Fedyushin, Dolbik, 1967). In Spain, infanticide was recorded in 18.9% of the observed nests. In all cases, the weakest chick was thrown out. The average age of discarded storks is 7.3 days (Tortosa and Redondo, 1992). Usually this behavior is associated with a lack of food. According to D. Lack (1957), the instinct of aborting a part of the laid eggs or hatched chicks is an adaptation that makes it possible to bring the size of the family in line with the amount of food available. It is assumed that the prevalence of infanticide in the white stork is associated with the lack of siblicide and competition for food in broods. Parents bring large amounts of small food, and larger chicks cannot monopolize it. Since the weakest chicks do not die themselves, their parents “have to” destroy them (Tortosa and Redondo, 1992; Zielicski, 2002).

A similar situation is noted not only in the territory of the former. USSR, but also in other countries. Most adult storks die on power lines; power lines pose the greatest danger to young, still poorly flying birds. This has been noted in Bulgaria (Nankinov, 1992), Germany (Riegel and Winkel, 1971; Fiedler and Wissner, 1980), Spain (Garrido, Femandez-Cruz, 2003), Poland (Jakubiec, 1991), Slovakia (Fulin, 1984), Switzerland (Moritzi, Spaar, Biber, 2001). In the district of Rostock in East Germany, out of 116 dead white stork chicks, 55.2% were discarded by their parents, 20.7% died due to falling nests, and 9.5% from hypothermia (Zollick, 1986). On migration paths and in wintering areas, the main causes of death of storks are shooting and other forms of persecution by people, death on power lines, and pesticide poisoning (Schulz, 1988). If a stream of many thousands of migratory storks crosses an area with a dense network of power lines, dozens of individuals die simultaneously (Nankinov, 1992).

In many African countries, the white stork is traditionally a hunting species. According to the returns of the rings, in the North. and Zap. In Africa, about 80% of deaths are due to shooting. According to X. Schultz (1988), in the 1980s. on the eastern flyway, 5-10 thousand storks were shot annually, of which 4-6 thousand were in Lebanon.

The mass death of storks can be caused by catastrophic weather events - storms, large hail, etc. On August 5, 1932, near one of the villages in northern Bulgaria, during an unprecedented hailstorm (pieces of ice up to half a kilogram in weight fell from the sky!) About 200 storks died and about a hundred more were left with broken legs and wings (Schumann, 1932). In 1998, in two villages of the Lviv region. almost all chicks in 19 monitored nests died during heavy rains (Gorbulshska et al., 2004). Great damage can be caused by the return of cold weather after the arrival of storks. So, in 1962 in the Lviv region. hundreds of individuals died due to frost and snowfalls in the third decade of March (Cherkashchenko, 1963).

Sometimes chicks die trying to swallow too large prey brought by their parents. For example, a case of death of a stork choking on a snake was noted (Kuppler, 2001). Some materials brought by parents to the nest are also dangerous for the chicks - pieces of twine, tow, in which storks can get tangled; pieces of film or oilcloth in a tray on which water collects.

Among the unfavorable factors are the changes in the environment that have taken place in recent decades. Buildings with thatched and thatched roofs, on which storks willingly nested, practically disappeared from the villages. The number of old trees suitable for nesting in settlements is also decreasing. Excessive reclamation, flooding of river floodplains with reservoirs, violation of the normal hydro regime of water bodies leads to depletion of the food supply. This is especially true for many countries in the West. Europe, where it is necessary to specially breed amphibians for food for storks. Recently, another problem has been added - the reduction in the area of ​​traditionally used meadows and pastures in many regions of the East. Europe and North. Asia due to the economic downturn. Increasing chemicalization of agriculture causes the accumulation of pesticides in food chains, which causes poisoning and diseases of birds. To the greatest extent, this is manifested in wintering areas, where an active fight is carried out against locusts and other pests of agriculture, which serve as the main food for storks.

In Central Asia, the most important factor influencing changes in range and abundance was the development of new lands for crops with a predominance of cotton monoculture, cutting down trees in river valleys, draining swamps, and reducing the area of ​​rice fields. Thanks to the enlargement of the fields, many forest belts were cut down. Modern architecture and urban planning trends do not contribute to the nesting of the white stork in settlements (Sagitov, 1990; Shernazarov et al., 1992).

In Russia, a significant factor limiting the number of nesting pairs is the destruction of nests on churches in connection with their restoration, on telegraph poles and power transmission line supports during the maintenance of electrical communications, as well as the dismantling of water towers for installation in a new location or scrapping. The latter factor is particularly threatening, as more than half of the Russian white stork group nests on water towers.

Unfavorable factors include the deterioration of the positive attitude towards the white stork of the local population, the loss of long-standing folk traditions. So, held in the Kyiv region. The survey showed that a significant part of rural residents not only do not know how to attract a white stork for nesting, but also do not want to have a nest on the estate (Grishchenko et al., 1992). This is despite the fact that the presence of a nest was previously considered a great blessing; attracting a white stork for nesting was one of the elements of ancient agrarian magic (Grishchenko, 19986, 2005). In Uzbekistan, the white stork was considered a sacred bird, but now the population in some places is engaged in destroying nests and collecting eggs (Sagitov, 1990).

In the south of Ukraine, 4 species of helminths have been recorded in the white stork: Dyctimetra discoidea, Chaunocephalus ferox, Tylodelphys excavata, Histriorchis tricolor (Kornushin et al., 2004).

About 70 white storks found in nests of white stork different types insects, mainly beetles (Coleoptera) (Hicks, 1959).

Economic importance, protection

The white stork destroys a large number of agricultural pests, primarily insects and rodents. It is widely known as one of the most active locust exterminators. The stork can bring some damage to the fishing and hunting economy, eating fish, chicks, rabbits, etc., but this is only random, and such food items do not occupy any noticeable place in the diet of the white stork. More or less significant damage to fisheries occurs only where large concentrations of storks form and there is practically no other food (for example, on fish farms in Israel). In the countries of the East. Europe and North. Asia is rare.

The white stork is a long-time companion of man, it has great aesthetic significance, it is considered one of the most beloved and revered birds among many peoples. His cult was formed in ancient times, most likely soon after the emergence of a producing economy (Grishchenko, 19986, 2005). The stork is an excellent object for environmental education and upbringing, it accepts human help, positively affects the emotions of people living nearby. To protect the stork, active propaganda and explanatory work is needed, as well as the revival of long-standing folk traditions of helping this bird. At the same time, due to the great popularity of the white stork, it is possible to attract a significant number of people to environmental protection activities. Large-scale scientific and propaganda campaigns are more effective, for example, the operations "Leleka" ("Stork") and "Year of the White Stork" carried out in Ukraine (Grishchenko, 1991, 19966; Grishchenko et al., 1992). Both propaganda work and practical assistance in the resettlement zone are especially important to secure the birds in new nesting places.

The white stork is listed in the Red Books of Kazakhstan, Uzbekistan, and in Russian Federation- in the Red Books of Karelia, Mordovia, Chechnya, Krasnodar and Stavropol Territories, Belgorod, Volgograd, Kaluga, Kirov, Lipetsk, Moscow, Nizhny Novgorod, Penza, Rostov, Ryazan, Tambov, Tver and some other regions.