federal agency of Education
Novosibirsk State University economics and Management
Department: Monetary and credit relations
banknote
Student: Prosvetova
Svetlana Gennadievna
Group number: MOP-81
Name of specialty:
Organisation management
Literature
1. Banknote: concept, main features
There are several concepts of the word "banknote". A banknote, as we understand it in everyday life, is cash embodied in paper and paint. If we consider this concept from the side of the world economy, a banknote is a form of credit money, which has a number of differences from paper money. Let's look at each of the definitions.
Banknote - in the broad sense of the word, a banknote made of paper, thick fabric (usually silk), metal or plastic, usually rectangular in shape;
in a narrow one - a bank note of a large denomination (as opposed to a treasury note of a small denomination or a change token that replaces a token coin).
Banknotes were previously issued by both public and private banks and financial companies, currently - the central banks of states and are required to be accepted throughout their territory along with coins.
The most ancient banknotes are Chinese. They began to be produced in the 8th century. In the USSR, starting from 1924 and up to 1992, paper banknotes with a denomination of up to 10 rubles (one chervonets) were issued by the Treasury and were called State Treasury notes, from 10 rubles and above - by the State Bank and were called Tickets of the State Bank of the USSR.
From a scientific point of view, a banknote is a credit money issued by the Central Bank through the rediscounting of bills and lending various organizations and states. Banknotes were originally issued commercial banks and were bank notes. Their appearance was associated with the need to replace a promissory note in the form of a commercial bill of exchange with a bill issued by a bank that had a higher credibility than its predecessor. Unlike a bill of exchange, a banknote was a kind of cash that could carry out an act of immediate payment, including fractional parts. Over time, the consolidation of the monopoly right to issue banknotes for issuing (banks) gave the banknotes a public state guarantee. At the same time, they turned into perpetual debt obligations with universal negotiability, that is, they turned into mandatory legal tender in the entire territory of a single state.
The first banknotes as a kind of credit money became known from the end of the 17th century. and had double security: gold, since the gold reserve of issuing banks ensured their exchange for gold, and commodity, since their issue was made on the basis of commercial bills. Such banknotes were called classical and had high reliability and stability. In this regard, classical banknotes were able to perform the function of simple storage of value inherent in full-fledged money, through the mechanism of their exchange for precious metal (gold, silver). Under conditions of free exchange of banknotes for gold, the number of change banknotes in circulation must be equal to the amount of gold required for circulation. Moreover, each banknote was a representative of the amount of gold indicated on it.
Unlike classical ones, modern banknotes do not have both types of security: the free exchange for gold has been stopped; in the sphere of circulation of bills, financial obligations predominate. Currently, the issue of banknotes is under the full control of the state, which takes full responsibility for the operation of the monetary system.
2. The difference between a banknote and a bill of exchange and from paper money
When comparing certain concepts, first of all, you should understand what and with what we will compare. In the first section, I gave a definition of the concept of "banknote", now let's consider in more detail: what is a "bill" and "paper money".
A bill of exchange is a written promissory note of a strictly statutory form, giving its owner (bill holder) an indisputable right, upon maturity, to demand from the debtor (bill drawer) the payment of the specified amount of money. The bill has the following features:
1. Abstractness - an obligation without specifying the reason for its occurrence;
2. Indisputability - there is no possibility to refuse payment under the obligation;
3. Negotiability - the ability to transfer a bill to third parties.
The main differences between a banknote and a bill of exchange are that:
1. For a bill of exchange, the debtor is a firm, a private person, for a banknote - the Central Bank (issuing);
2. Banknotes have a public guarantee in the form of resources stored in the bank, therefore they act as public credit money with a special quality - universal negotiability. The bill of exchange has only a partial guarantee and is not a universal means of payment.
3. A banknote is a perpetual obligation. The circulation of bills of exchange is limited by the term of their payment.
Paper money is banknotes (signs of value) endowed with a forced denomination, usually not exchanged for metal and issued by the state to cover its expenses. The main properties of paper money are:
1. Lack of intrinsic value;
2. The issue of paper money is associated not only with the real needs of circulation, but also with growing unproductive costs.
3. The mechanism of spontaneous regulation of monetary circulation does not work on paper money, since paper money does not perform the function of a treasure.
4. The possibility of depreciation due to violation of the law of monetary circulation.
The main differences between banknotes and paper money are:
1. Subject of issue - banknotes were issued only by a bank, paper money can be issued in addition to the bank by the State Treasury or the Ministry of Finance;
2. Security - paper money is not exchangeable for metal and, as a rule, is not secured. Banknotes at the time of issue are backed by gold or bills of exchange;
3. The difference in the procedure and order of issuance - the classical banknote was issued in the order of crediting the turnover, paper money was issued initially to cover the budget deficit.
The transition of the issue of banknotes under the control of the state gradually blurs the line between banknotes and paper money. Technically, the banknote is executed on paper and in the sphere of circulation replaces metal coins. Therefore, it is perceived as paper money, acting as a substitute for gold. This is also facilitated by the fact that the volume of issue of banknotes is determined not only by the total value of bills of exchange presented for accounting, but also by the value of settlements in that sphere of commodity circulation where bills of exchange are not valid, but cash is used. The sphere of banknote circulation turns out to be the area where metallic circulation and the circulation of credit money act together, through the same instrument of circulation. Insofar as the banknote replaces the bill, it is credit money, insofar as it simultaneously replaces gold in circulation, it is the representative of metallic money. If the state issues fiat banknotes into circulation, they turn into state paper money. This, among other things, leads to the fact that concepts are mixed, since we are talking about the same form of money, only in relation to different circumstances. When there is a healthy circulation of money, the banknote serves as a form of credit money, designed to perform mainly the function of a medium of exchange. But when the state abuses its right to issue, suspends or stops the exchange of banknotes for gold due to certain circumstances, banknotes degenerate into state paper money that does not have a strong connection with either metallic or credit money.
3. The main directions of issuing modern banknotes
Currently, a modern banknote is issued in three areas: bank lending to the economy, lending to the state, and the growth of official gold and foreign exchange reserves.
The gold coin standard collapsed with the onset of the general crisis of capitalism, when World War I broke out in 1914-1918. It was replaced by paper money circulation. After World War I, in 1924-28, an attempt was made to restore the Gold Standard, but not in its former form, but in the form of a gold bullion and gold trade standard. The circulation of gold coins could not be restored due to the lack of gold reserves and their uneven distribution between countries. Large amounts of banknotes were exchanged for gold bars weighing 12-14 kg (in Great Britain, France) or for foreign currency, which, in turn, was exchanged for gold bars (in Germany, Belgium, etc.). Gold was completely ousted from domestic circulation in all countries except the United States, where it lasted until 1933. The exchange of banknotes for bullion was carried out, as a rule, only if it was necessary to repay the balance of payments deficit by exporting gold. However, these modified forms of the Gold Standard did not last long. Their complete collapse was caused by the world economic crisis of 1929-1933, as a result of which paper-money circulation was established in all capitalist countries, including the United States, with its inherent phenomena of inflation, rising commodity prices, sharp fluctuations in exchange rates, etc. In 1931 the Gold Standard was abolished in Great Britain and Japan, in 1933 in the USA, in 1935 in Belgium and Italy, in 1936 in France, Switzerland and the Netherlands.
After the termination of the free exchange of banknotes for gold, it was never resumed.
Literature
1. http://ru.wikipedia.org/
2. Great Soviet encyclopedia
3. Leontiev V.E., Radkovskaya I.P. Finance, money, credit and banks: Tutorial. - St. Petersburg: Knowledge, IVESEP, 2003. -384 p.
4. Shmyreva A. I. Money. Credit. Banks: Educational and methodical complex. - Novosibirsk: NSUEU, 2008. -132p.
In recent years, many people have been seriously thinking about. But which direction to choose? What to take in order not to burn out? And how to start with minimal costs? Processing of walnuts is one of the directions own business, which does not require large financial and labor costs.
How to Start a Walnut Processing Business?
Since ancient times, walnuts have been treated for diseases, they have restored strength, they fed humanity, so there is no doubt that it is in great demand, especially in Europe. Many people buy the nut in various varieties from the population that grows it. But very few people process it. The essence of the business idea that will be discussed is precisely in the peeling of nuts from the shell. After all, the price of a pure, packaged nut is several times higher than its value in the shell.
Processing should begin with the fact that first you need to take these same nuts somewhere. You can, of course, grow them yourself, but you will have to wait 5-6 years before the first harvest. Besides, it's quite a hassle.
Therefore, it is much more promising and profitable to buy nuts than to grow them, all the more so - it is far from a fact that the planted and grown trees will bring a good harvest.
How to choose walnut processing equipment?
Processing itself consists in extracting grain from the shell of a previously split nut. But to crack a nut by hand is a very long and complicated process. Fortunately, technology in our age does not stand still, so you can buy the so-called nutcracker.
This machine splits the shell thanks to two shafts, which are driven by an electric motor through a gearbox. Therefore, the handles will also have to work. We need a staff consisting of 3-5 employees.
You can find a nutcracker (if you search well) at an average price of 700-800 dollars. There are, of course, advanced industrial machines worth 3-5 thousand dollars, but there is no point in buying them, since it simply will not be possible to use their full potential on full power.
Also for organizing a recycling business walnut need non-residential premises for work and storage of purchased raw materials. The ideal option would be the private sector, but in the absence of such, it will be necessary to rent the premises. It should be spacious and heated, because with a good flow of customers, it will be necessary to work all winter.
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How Much Can You Make From a Walnut Processing Business
Walnut processing, the business associated with this activity - we understand further. And now to the most delicious - the calculation of profits. The productivity of the simplest walnut polishing machine is from a centner (100 kg) per hour. But the kernels still need to be pulled out of the shell. One person for a typical eight-hour working day, without particularly straining, is able to sort out 200 kg of nuts. So, when three employees work for one month (22 working days), 13.2 tons of finished products come out (200 kg * 3 people * 22 days = 13200 kg).
Based on the calculation that to obtain 1 kg of peeled nuts, approximately 3 kg of unpeeled nuts will be required, it follows that about 40 tons of nuts will be required for processing, the average cost of which is $ 1 per kg.
You can sell finished grain for $5. The price fluctuates depending on the variety of nuts and the integrity of the processed grain, for example, "butterflies" (halves of the nut kernel) are an order of magnitude more expensive, and grains that do not even have whole quarters are considered the cheapest.
The pay is about 10 cents per kilogram of sorted nuts, or a dollar per 10 kg.
- costs per month = 40,000 (buying a nut) + 0.1 * 13,200 (wages) = $ 41,320;
- income per month = 5 * 13200 = 66000 dollars.
Total net profit 66000-41320 = $24680 per month!
1 950 usd / piece
We offer walnut processing lines of various configurations and capacities.
Pre-calibration of the walnut is NOT REQUIRED!
On the line, the walnut goes through the following stages of processing:
1. Splitting the nut shell
2. Separation of the kernel from the shell, cleaning
3. Calibration of the nut kernel for fractions
4. Aspiration - cleaning the kernel from dust, debris, small particles and small shells
Yield "Butterfly",%: 20 - 60
You can see and evaluate the operation of walnut processing equipment by visiting us.
We produce walnut processing equipment: calibrators, nut crackers, walnut splitting machines, vibrating screens, aspirators, FULL CYCLE, walnut processing line. Any equipment with your characteristics.
Get more detailed information You can make a phone call. Line operation video: http://youtu.be/zByvJr8g8ys.
"NPP Service Pack" manufactures and offers industrial equipment for the processing of walnuts and hazelnuts of various capacities for large processing enterprises and for small businesses.
We offer machines for peeling nuts from the green pericarp followed by washing and drying the nuts, nut calibrators, nut splitters different types walnut splitters, walnut kernel beaters from a “dense” walnut shell of the “bone, dolbun” type, one and two-level sorting and bulkhead conveyors and inspection tables, vibro-calibrating sieves with aspiration for sorting the kernel (butterfly, quarter, eighth, grains ) and shell removal, drying cabinets and drying tanks "one and a half ton", vacuum packers for the core, disintegrators for grinding the nut shell into grains for the manufacture of pellets and into powder up to 40 microns for abrasive and cosmetics, etc.
European workmanship, European and North Korean components. The real guarantee for the equipment is 1...
2 900 - 3 000 usd / piece
"NPP Service Pack". We offer the MKO-03 walnut splitting machine recognized by many experienced walnut processors as the best. The machine is designed to break the walnut shell to obtain the optimal amount of the whole kernel. Productivity of the car - 140kg/hour. "MKO-03" has many technological settings for working with nuts of different sizes, the machine breaks the nut shell at least in six points, which can significantly increase the quality of splitting and obtaining a whole kernel. "MKO-3" consumes 0.55 kW and can operate from a 220V or 380V network, it is equipped with reliable electronics and an Italian motor-reducer. MKO-03 is used both as a separate unit and in industrial lines for the processing of walnuts. We also produce equipment for separating nuts from the green pericarp with subsequent washing of nuts, calibrators, vibrating screens with aspiration for separating the shell and separating the kernel into fractions, splitting and picking machines for working with "dolbun", inspection stations...
We produce equipment for the processing of walnuts. Our walnut splitters provide optimal whole kernel production and a real "butterfly" production (75%). We also produce nut calibrators, vibrating sieves with the function of shell aspiration, nut shell knockers such as "Cleaver", "Greedy", "Bone", sorting and sorting conveyors for 8 or more places, disintegrators for grinding shells into flour powder, packers kernels.
Customize equipment, provide assistance with delivery to anywhere in the world, perform commissioning, warranty, service.
Viber: +38 067 776 38 39; +38 050 257 45 35
Email: [email protected]
A line for processing (chopping and sorting) walnuts and hazelnuts is for sale. The equipment is located in Rostov-on-Don. Warranty service until October 2014.
Price: Negotiable
ALL QUESTIONS BY PHONE ONLY:
Brief description of equipment:
Machine for cracking the shell of walnuts "MKO"
We present to your attention practically new equipment for the processing of walnuts and hazelnuts. PAY ATTENTION, the equipment is factory-made, certified, has a technical passport. Represents a line ( full cycle) processing - from calibration to packaging of the finished kernel. The line includes 5 machines that can work in a complex, and separately. This equipment per shift processes more than 1000 kg of raw materials, a large% yield of the core! Individual units are capable of carrying out a volume of about 5-6 tons per shift. The complex also includes 2 systems for cleaning (aspiration) from debris and shells. The main components of this line (motors, gearboxes) are made in Italy and have a guarantee. The price is negotiable, barter (exchange) is possible. You can find out all your questions by calling 89614106107, 89185210874 or e-mail [email protected] [email protected]
Pine nuts
When buying nuts in a store or on the market, we usually do not think about how the process of cleaning the kernels from the shell takes place. Of course, at home, we chop them manually with special tongs, but peeling nuts on an industrial scale is a completely different matter, and tongs are indispensable here.
Nowadays, there is modern equipment for processing nuts, thanks to which the laborious manual process is replaced by a mechanical one, which allows you to clean a large number of nuts in a short time. In this article, we will tell you how nuts are processed on the lines of factories.
Peeling walnuts is a complex procedure that is carried out in several steps:
- drying;
- separation into fractions and screening of garbage;
- separating the kernels from the shell;
- drying.
Different technologies are used to clean nuts. The simplest of them involves the use of a machine, consisting of a crushing compartment and sieves of various calibers. First, the nuts are squeezed metal profiles, as a result of which the shell is destroyed, and after the kernels are separated from the husk by blowing with a fan and sifted through sieves with different hole sizes.
On the large factories use more powerful lines of equipment and high-tech methods for cleaning nuts using high temperatures and pressure changes. In the first method, they are calcined in a special machine, which leads to an increase in pressure inside the nut and to the destruction of the shell. In the second case, the nuts are placed in a special chamber, in which the pressure is first increased to several atmospheres, and then quickly reduced. As a result of strong pressure drops, the shell also bursts, while the kernels remain intact.
In rare cases, nuts are cleaned using liquid nitrogen. With this technology, the nuts are preheated, after which they are quickly cooled with liquid nitrogen, which causes the shell to crack.
In accordance with GOST standards, walnut kernels after cleaning are calibrated according to the composition:
- the highest grade - whole kernels and halves, and the number of halves is not more than 10 percent;
- the first grade - it is allowed to contain in the total mass of whole kernels no more than 15 percent of quarters and smaller pieces;
- the third grade - 60 percent of the nut mass consists of halves of kernels and parts of ¾ and quarters in size.
- fourth grade - pieces of small format kernels.
Special machines are also used to sort walnuts. In addition, there are requirements for the moisture content of the kernels - it should not exceed 10 percent. Drying is carried out on drying equipment, after which the nuts are sealed in vacuum packaging.
Processing of cedar
cleaning pine nuts the plant is also carried out using specialized equipment.
The walnut processing line consists of machines used for the following operations:
- drying and cleaning nuts;
- separation of nuts into fractions by size;
- peeling nuts;
- separating the kernels from the husk;
- cleaning the cores from the film;
- washing and drying of kernels;
- sorting.
After completion of all stages, cedar kernels are placed in a film and sold. The use of technological equipment makes it possible to process several tons of pine nuts per day. However, minus mechanical way processing of pine nuts into a kernel lies in the fact that the rough details of the mechanism can violate the integrity of the kernels, which negatively affects the quality.
Business Ideas
Nuts are famous for their nutritional value, so own production processing them can bring a good income. While creating small production you can not buy a powerful line, limiting yourself to buying simpler devices that perform the same actions, but with lower performance. And to organize a business at home, you can assemble a peeling machine yourself using simple schemes that are available on the Internet.
Developing production, it is possible to focus not only on nut kernels, but also on other products of their processing: oil, cake, shell powder. These products (especially oil) are also in demand in the market, while the competition in this area is relatively low. However, to obtain oil, you will need to additionally purchase a special press and filters.
In addition, it is possible to buy in bulk already peeled walnut and pine nut kernels and arrange a small line for their packaging. Given the high cost of nuts, this business can also bring a steady profit. At the same time, whatever method of processing nuts you prefer, you need to remember that the enterprise will be successful only if you use competitive advantage: High Quality products, a wide range (raw and roasted nuts, oils, etc.) and attractive packaging that ensures the safety of the goods.
Nowadays, many are looking for what kind of business to do. There are many general options. You can trade, produce, process, etc. In general, there are many directions, but there are few specific ideas. Many do not trust the ideas of outsiders. Some search and add their own to them.
Here is one of the ideas. Read on, you might want to take a chance and try. As the saying goes, “if you don’t try, you won’t know.” This idea is not universal, it will not suit everyone due to certain external factors. Perhaps, on its basis, you will come up with something that suits you personally.
The idea is simple. Business with minimum investment. It all depends on how much work you can or want to do. It directly depends on the class of equipment and the number of customers.
If this article interests you, and you decide to take a step, then I want to give advice. You need to start small, do not aim at grandiose achievements right away.
And so, the idea is to process the walnut. Surely, when you came across ads, and when you heard offers to buy a nut, you had questions, “why?” and “what to do with it?”. I will give you a brief description of what the essence of this business is.
This market is developing and in demand. Walnut grain, that is, a shelled nut, is bought by confectionery companies, packaged and sold in stores at quite high prices. It has also been exported to Europe. In each region there are people and companies that are engaged in buying nuts, ranging from small entrepreneurs buying nuts, in villages, ending big firms who grow it. But they process them and extract the grain of a unit. The work is painstaking, many do it manually, and this is long and difficult. But we now live in a century high technology where manual labor is replaced by machines that facilitate and speed up the production process.
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In essence, we briefly understood. Now let's move on to the description of the process itself.
First, about material and labor costs.
An industrial nutcracker costs from $1,000. Of course, the more expensive the nutcracker, the more and better it will be able to split the nut. Models that cost more than $ 2,500 are not recommended, you simply will not be able to immediately use their full power. The principle of industrial nut crackers is simple (a frame on which everything is attached, a body with 2 milling shafts, an electric motor and a container for filling nuts). As you can see, everything is simple, there are no special difficulties with its operation and maintenance. In more expensive models of walnuts, the processing process is more automated and the mechanism is much more complicated.
To begin with, you will need a preferably heated non-residential premises, since you will have to work from the beginning of autumn, and if you find a lot of clients, then until the end of winter! If you have a private sector, then well, you will save on renting a room. If you rent a room, then it should be spacious, you, because you will need to store raw materials somewhere.
For work you will need from 3 to 5 people, depending on your volumes, of course. The nutcracker does not clean the nut on its own, but only breaks its shell, so manual labor will still be needed. Only expensive models clean the shell on their own.
Now about the receipt of finished products and estimated income.
The simplest nutcracker is able to process about 100kg / h. This is the hardest part to recycle. Separating the shell is not difficult and fast.
According to averaged data (depending on the quality of the nut), the yield is 1 kg of grain from 3 kg of unshelled nuts. Therefore, discuss this issue with the client in advance. If a nut Bad quality it is better to underestimate the yield ratio of the product.
Payment for finished products fluctuates around $0.5 per kilogram. It all depends on the quality of cleaning. If you have a lot of "butterflies" - this is half a nut, then the price will be higher. The lowest paid grain is considered to be, in which there are not even whole “quarters”. Therefore, by processing 6 tons, which is a little less than two weeks, you will recoup the costs!
Walnut shells are also in demand, but are cheap. If customers do not take it from you, then the shell can either be sold or used as fuel for the boiler.
Of course, you can also buy a nut yourself, process it and sell it. The cost of one kilogram of nuts in the purchase fluctuates around 1 dollar / kg. The purchase of nuts is from the population, in connection with this you will need a truck and, accordingly, additional fuel costs will arise. You can sell finished grain for $5/kg. But at the same time, companies that buy grain are looking for suppliers who can supply at least 1 ton of grain per week. The income is certainly solid, 2000 dollars per ton. Difficulties and inconveniences lie in the fact that there are many people who want to buy a nut, it will take a lot of time and money to purchase.
Based on all of the above, recycling is a more profitable business. You do not risk your cash, you do the work and get paid for it. Your costs are minimal and quickly paid off.
Think about this idea, good luck!
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