1 what is the social structure of society. What is social structure

Annotation: The purpose of the lecture: to reveal the structure of society as a system, the content and types of social structure, the social status and social prestige of the individual and the community.

The structure of society as a system

social structure, according to the definition of A. I. Kravchenko, is the anatomical skeleton of society. The elements of such a structure are social statuses and roles. However, the description of what communities of people (statuses) "consists" society does not yet give a complete picture of it. Just like giving no idea about the building enum building materials used for its construction. You also need to know how this building was built. Therefore, it is necessary to know about the social structure of society, i.e. about the social structure. However, before proceeding to consider the social structure of society, it is necessary to present the structure of society as a whole. As we know, society is a complex system represented by the interconnection of its economic, spiritual, political, personal, informational and social subsystems. How do these subsystems form the structure of society? First of all, it is necessary to understand the content of the concept of "structure". The structure is the internal structure of the system, which exists in the form of stable, ordered interconnections of elements, thanks to which the system maintains its integrity. Respectively, structure of society can be defined as stable and orderly relationships between its subsystems - economic, political, spiritual, personal, informational and social.

The orderliness of the links between these systems is manifested in the fact that, performing their functions, they ensure the stable functioning of society as a whole. It - functional (horizontal) structure of society. Society, therefore, is a system in which the economic, spiritual, political, informational and social functions performed by the corresponding subsystems ensure its integrity in their interaction.

The economic function is to create material conditions in the form of production, exchange, distribution and consumption wealth for the functioning of other spheres of society. The spiritual function manifests itself as the creation of moral, artistic, religious, scientific, ideological and other conditions for politics, economics, culture, communications, personal life and social relations. The political function is associated with the formation and spread of the political role, which ensures the controllability of economic, spiritual, social, cultural and communicative processes with the help of political institutions. The cultural function is characterized as ensuring the stability, orderliness, continuity of all social processes. – Information and communication function is the creation of a network of economic, political, spiritual, social and cultural messages. The social function is to determine social status all subjects and addressing them social problems.. Thus, society appears to us as an extremely complex "functional" mechanism in comparison, for example, with technical systems.

Each of the subsystems of society not only serves society as a system, but also has the property of self-sufficiency, strives for its own internal order. At the same time, the desire for internal stability, self-sufficiency may contradict the need for the sustainable functioning of society as a whole. For example, the political system in different countries begins to work for itself, while hindering the effective development social sphere, economic or spiritual life. The same can be said about other areas of society. Hence, contradictions arise between the subsystems of society, the existence of non-functional (ie, useless for other areas) and dysfunctional (ie, interfering with other functions) relationships between them. Such contradictions can be resolved in the course of successive reforms of both the subsystems themselves and the forms of interconnections between them. However, unresolved contradictions can lead to a deep crisis of the social system and even its collapse, as we saw in the example of the USSR.

Orderliness in the interconnections of these systems is also manifested in the fact that they are located in a certain subordination to each other. Subordination in this case should be understood as the dominant role of one subsystem in relation to others. One of the subsystems can predetermine the content and nature of the functioning of other subsystems. Some subsystems exist as if for the sake of others, the former are given more importance than the latter. The order of subordination of subsystems of society can be designated as vertical (hierarchical) structure.

The hierarchy of the systems of society is not always the same. In a traditional society, politics dominates the economy, determining to a large extent the nature of property, labor organization, methods of distribution, and the amount of consumption. State power regulates the forms of ownership, labor organization, determines the permitted and prohibited forms economic activity. The economy in such a society exists "for the sake of" politics. In totalitarian societies, economic, spiritual and other relations are also subject to state power: the latter determines how to write scientific and works of art what to produce, how to think, etc. At certain stages of the development of society, religious (ideological) relations become dominant in relation to the rest, regulating the forms and methods of production, consumption, exchange, distribution, management, family life, education, etc. In societies with a market system economic system largely determines the content and structure of political, spiritual, social life, market mechanisms penetrate into political institutions (parliamentarism, election competition and change of power, etc.), into spiritual life (commercialization of art, education, science, etc. .), in social life(dominant in society are the strata that dominate the economy) and even in private life (marriage of convenience, pragmatism in gender relations, etc.).

According to K. Marx, the structure of society can be described by the concepts of "basis" and "superstructure". At the heart of the social structure is the economy (relations of production, basis), over which rise political, social and spiritual relations (superstructure). The development of society is ultimately determined by changes in the base, which determine changes in the superstructure. At the same time, the superstructure itself actively influences the basis. Thus, K. Marx was one of the first to propose the concept of the structure of society: it generally contains an idea of both vertical and horizontal structure. Economic relations determine the content of superstructural relations, while the latter perform specific functions (in which their activity is manifested) in relation to the basis.

Each of the subsystems of society also has its own horizontal and vertical structure. So, we can distinguish the economic, political, spiritual, communication, social, personal, intellectual and cultural structure of society.

Horizontal and vertical social structure of society

Society can exist as a social system only when stable and orderly social ties form the dominant, basic type of relationship. At the same time, the relations of social chaos, although they take place, do not determine the main content social system. However, society is not always dominated by orderly social relations. Society as a social system has its own measure of chaos (entropy). If chaotic social relations become excessive, then this leads to the destruction of the social system (which is observed during periods of deep social crises). The dominance of social chaos (like civil war, for example) can only be a temporary state, the permanent and basic state of society is the predominance of social order over social disorder. The social structure of society is perceived in the public mind as social balance, stability in the relationships between classes, nations, generations, professional communities, etc. In other words, social structure is the skeleton of society, the basis of social order. So, the social structure of society is understood as a network of stable and orderly relationships between the individual, groups and society, thanks to which society as a social system ensures its integrity.

It is possible to distinguish such varieties of social structure as socio-demographic, socio-class, socio-ethnic, socio-professional, socio-confessional, socio-territorial structures.

However, it is impossible to directly see how society works. This requires abstraction, singling out from the whole set of stable social relationships those that make up a kind of framework for society. Introduce social structure society is possible only by constructing its theoretical model.

The theoretical model of social structure can be depicted as a ball with horizontal and vertical frames that hold the social system together. The horizontal frame is functional, and the vertical frame hierarchical structure of society.

The first type of social structure of society is social functional structure. Communities of people are interconnected in such a way that the actions of some are a dependent variable on the actions of others. Entrepreneurs and wage-earners in their actions depend on each other. The same can be said about the functional relationships between urban and rural residents, residents of different regions. Ethnic and racial communities, men and women, generations are also functionally interconnected, occupying one or another position in the system of social division of labor, being represented to one degree or another in various class, professional, territorial and other communities. According to their content, functional ties between communities of people can be economic, political, personal, informational and spiritual. According to their carriers (subjects and objects), functional connections are social. Functional relationships can be ordered (pro-functional) and chaotic (dysfunctional). The latter manifests itself, for example, in the form of strikes (refusal of certain professional groups or representatives of the organization to perform their functions). However, society exists as a social system only when stable functional ties prevail. At the same time, dysfunctional ties can also play a constructive role in a society that is ripe for radical change.

In society, there are many non-functional relationships between communities of people. The functions performed by social subjects are recognized as useful for society, but they are not always useful for the subjects themselves. In many cases, people are forced to perform certain functions, because they are forced to do so by society or various communities. At the same time, the functions performed are either indifferent to the subjects themselves, or contradict their vital interests (for example, slave owners do not perform any useful functions in relation to their slaves, and the performance of slave functions is forced for a slave). This type relations is based on the dissemination of the will of some in relation to others.

Material and spiritual goods, due to which people interact, have their limitations (both due to natural reasons - a shortage of natural resources or poor development of material and spiritual production, and because of the deficit artificially created by some groups for other groups). As a result, social communities are interconnected not only functionally, but also hierarchically. The hierarchical structure is the stability and orderliness of the relationship between the individual, communities of people and society in terms of different levels of access to public goods ( social inequality ).

Society can be imagined as a ladder, on different steps of which certain communities of people are located. The higher the rung, the greater the access to public goods. In everyday consciousness, society, on the basis of social inequality, is usually divided into "tops", "bottoms" and "middle strata".

One part of society believes that social inequality is unnatural for human nature and the ideals of a just, humane society, it has only a negative significance for the progress of society and the development of the individual. Others, on the contrary, believe that social inequality is an integral, natural feature of any society and even progress condition and prosperity of society. Representatives of functionalism in sociology seek to explain social inequality by the functional order in society: the differences in the communities of people in the social hierarchy stem from the social functions they perform. Therefore, attempts to change social inequality lead to a functional disorder of society and are therefore undesirable. In other words, no distinction is made between the horizontal and vertical structure of society. Not only in ordinary consciousness, but also in some sociological theories, there is a tendency to ignore the differences between social and individual inequality. As a result, social inequality is explained, in fact, by individual inequality. In particular, such an interpretation of social inequality was characteristic of the theory of elites (G. Mosca, V. Pareto and others), which explains the “right” of the elite to exercise political power by the fact that it allegedly consists of people with special mental qualities. However, no matter how we evaluate social inequality, it exists objectively, regardless of our will and consciousness.

It is known from history that numerous uprisings of slaves, even in the event of their victorious completion, did not lead to the destruction of slavery (the hierarchical order of the slave-owning type). Peasant wars and uprisings in Russia until the second half of the 18th century (when the crisis of the feudal-serf system began) did not take place under the slogans of the liquidation of the feudal hierarchy and serfdom. AT modern countries, including our country, social inequality is sustainable. At the same time, there social forces who aspire not to the establishment of a new system of domination, but to social justice and real democracy.

At the same time, in any society, to one degree or another, relations that deny this order, try to rebuild the vertical structure of society, manifest themselves and make themselves felt. Such relations dominate in the era of cardinal social changes, but in periods of stable functioning and development of society, they are secondary and do not determine the essence of society.

It is necessary to distinguish between the concepts of "social inequality" and "individual inequality". Social inequality is a characteristic of the social structure of society, the objective position of a person, communities of people in society, while individual inequality characterizes the personal qualities of individual abilities, the subjective capabilities of individuals. Social inequality between communities can consist in significant differences in access to economic benefits (in employment opportunities, in wages for the same work, in the ability to own or dispose of economic resources, etc.), to political power (in inequality, in opportunities to express one's interests in making and implementing political decisions, etc.), to information benefits (opportunity to get an education, access to artistic wealth, etc.). Individual inequality can be expressed in different levels of performance, intellectual and other psychological qualities of individuals. Individuals who are clearly superior to others in their abilities, however, may occupy lower rungs on the social ladder than individuals who do not stand out in any way in their subjective capabilities. Outstanding mathematician of the 19th century. S. Kovalevskaya could not find work in Russian universities, because it was believed that women could not be teachers in higher education. And even now, with the same qualifications as men, women cannot count on equal conditions for employment, promotion, and remuneration. A similar or different manifestation of social inequality can be observed in relation to generations, nations, racial communities, urban and rural residents.

The horizontal and vertical social structures of society are closely interconnected. Those social communities, the functions of which lose their significance, eventually turn out to be ousted from their "step". Changing social functions can also lead to a reduction in social inequality. The functions of women in modern societies have changed significantly, primarily in the field of professional activity which is reflected in the change in their position on the social ladder. Thus, changes in the functional structure to one degree or another cause changes in the hierarchical structure. On the other hand, hierarchy influences the horizontal structure to a certain extent. For example, the higher position of men on the social ladder, one way or another, contributes to the imposition on women of those functions that men avoid. Representatives of those communities of people who occupy a higher position in the social hierarchy have more conditions for obtaining a higher level of education and more qualified work. For example, residents big cities are much more likely to find a better job or receive a better education than residents of medium or small towns.

The interdependence of vertical and horizontal structures cannot be exaggerated. Each side of the social structure has its own "logic" ( internal conditioning). For example, teachers, even in economically prosperous countries, despite the importance and complexity of the social functions they perform, nevertheless consistently belong to the "below average" and not "above average" strata of society. The hierarchical structure largely supports itself, regulates and ensures its stability (although this is functional and turns out to be disadvantageous and even harmful). The same can be said about the functional structure of society. Bureaucracy (in the negative sense of the word), for example, is characterized by the fact that officials seek to increase the size of the administrative apparatus (i.e., new functions are created for the sake of the functions themselves), which naturally leads to a decrease in efficiency and management. One of the functions of modern state power is to ensure the correspondence between the horizontal and vertical structures of society. In other words, the more complex and important for society is the type of activity, the higher should be its payment and other incentives.

The nature of the relationship between the vertical and functional aspects of the social structure depends not only on the level of development, but also on the type of society. In a traditional society, the main role is played by hierarchical structure. Social functions in such a society are rigidly tied to the communities of people who occupy one or another position on the social ladder. For example, professionalism is a sign of a person's pre-low status (a professional is a craftsman, be it a shoemaker, a potter, a doctor, a teacher, an artist, a poet, a professor - therefore, he occupies one of the last places in the vertical order of society). The meaning of the social hierarchy in many respects comes down to forcing certain communities to perform certain social functions (in the form of serfdom, vassal duties, official duty). Without coercion (in the form of military force, symbolic - religious and ritual, etc.) in a traditional society, the functional order is subject to destruction. The position occupied in the social vertical dictates well-defined social functions (if a person is a nobleman, he is obliged to perform the official and other functions assigned to him, if he is a peasant, then he is obliged to work out corvée or pay dues).

In an industrial society, there is an evolution from the dominance of the vertical structure to the dominance functional structure. As a result of the social division of labor, which extends to almost the entire employed population, the deepening of social differentiation, the position in the social hierarchy in many respects begins to depend on the significance of the social functions performed. However, in modern Russia those professions and specialties that are associated with innovations in various spheres of life are not sufficiently rewarded. This indicates the preservation of the archaic orders characteristic of pre-industrial societies.

Social status and social prestige

Each individual and each community occupy a certain position in the social structure of society, which in sociology is usually called social status. Social status characterizes both the social functions that an individual and communities perform in society, and the opportunities that society provides them.

We can talk about two aspects of social status - vertical and functional. There are also prescribed and achievable types of social status. Prescribed (innate) social status is a position in the social structure that a person or communities of people occupy regardless of their efforts, by virtue of the social structure itself. Achievable (acquired) social status is a position in the social structure that a person or communities of people occupy due to the expenditure of their own energy. Thus, statuses derived from belonging to gender, generation, race, nation, family, territorial community, estate are prescribed. Belonging to these communities to a large extent in itself determines a person's place in both the vertical and horizontal structures, regardless of his personal efforts. Achievable can be a status that a person occupies due to diligence, enterprise, hard work or other qualities.

Prescribed and attainable status are related to each other. The level of qualification and education, for example, depends not only on the person himself, but also on what place he occupies in the system of social inequality. Children from poor families have much less access to higher education than children from wealthy families. Villagers are also much less likely to receive more high level education and more skilled work than for the townspeople. The attainable status therefore depends largely on the prescribed status. On the other hand, the prescribed status is also not absolute. Only in a traditional society, whose social structure was frozen, immobile, the prescribed status guaranteed a person's lifelong position. In modern society, for the social position of a person, personal qualities and personal efforts of people are of greater importance, in comparison with traditional society.

However, it would be an idealization of modern society to recognize the priority of attainable social status. So far there is no such society in which the place of each person depended only on his abilities and efforts. The social structure of all past and present societies is characterized by the leading role of prescribed social status.

The distance between social statuses is called social distance. Unlike physical distance, social distance measured in specific social measures. This is the scope of access to public goods. People who are in physical space next to each other can be separated by a huge social distance.

The social distance between individuals and communities of people exists objectively, regardless of our ideas about it. It can be measured using methods developed in empirical sociology. However, in the perception of people, this distance is determined subjectively, based on how they define their own social status. The latter is the starting point for determining social status and other people. We present the social structure, social statuses and social distance in comparison of "foreign" and "our" statuses. At the same income level, for example, a person may assess his social status differently depending on how many people and how much they have more or less income. Such a comparative, comparative assessment of social status in the public mind is called social prestige. So, in society, individual professions and, accordingly, professional communities, separate territories and areas of residence, classes, etc. Prestige is reflected in social representations of the personality and communities of people of both vertical and horizontal statuses. Any social status may be of little prestige from the point of view of the social vertical and prestigious from the point of view of its functional significance (horizontal cut of the structure).

From the social status and prestige should be distinguished personal status - the position of the individual in the system of interpersonal relations. A high rank in one group can be combined with a low rank in another - this is the phenomenon of status mismatch. It is the statuses that determine the nature, content, duration or intensity of human relationships - both personal and social. So, when choosing a marriage partner, it is the status of an individual of the opposite sex that is the main criterion for making a decision. Thus, the functional connection of statuses determines social relations. The dynamic side of the status is the social role, which determines social interaction. Although the structure describes a stable aspect of the structure of society (statics), social roles give it mobility (dynamics). This is due to the fact that each individual interprets social expectations in his own way and chooses an individual model of behavior of a person of a certain status.

Brief summary:

Social structure is the anatomical skeleton of society, reflecting the network of stable connections between the individual, groups and society.
A function is a manifestation of the properties of an object, element in relation to the whole, system
Functional (horizontal) structure - stable links between the subsystems of society: political, economic, personal, spiritual, cultural, information and communication and social.
Hierarchy is the arrangement of parts or elements of a social whole in order from highest to lowest.
Vertical structure - the dominance of some subsystems over others
Social inequality - differences between communities in their access to public goods.
Social status - the position of individuals and communities in the social structure
A comparative subjective assessment of social statuses in the public and group consciousness is called social prestige.

Practice set

Questions:

Is it permissible to identify social status with the person who occupies it?
What is the difference between the concepts "social composition of society" and "social structure of society"?
Explain why social interaction describes the dynamics of society, and social relations describe its statics
How do you see the difference between horizontal and vertical structures?
What did K. Marx mean by the basis of society?
What is the relationship between social order and social chaos?
Why is social inequality a natural feature of any society?
From the standpoint of what status - vertical or horizontal - is the profession of a scientist prestigious in modern Russia?

Themes for term papers, abstracts, essays:

The phenomenon of mixed social status
Contradiction and harmony of personality statuses
Social status and social relations
Social role and social dynamics
Role recruitment and the problem of role identification
Structuring new social processes
social prestige and social types personalities
Social inequality as progress condition societies
Social and personal inequality

1. The concept of social structure and its constituent elements.

The social structure of society is a set of interconnected and interacting social communities and groups, social institutions, social statuses and relations between them. All elements of the social structure interact as a single social organism. In order to more clearly represent the complexity and multidimensionality of the social structure, it can be conditionally divided into two subsystems: 1) the social composition of society; 2) the institutional structure of society.

1. The social composition of society is the recoupment of interactions existing social communities, social al groups and individuals, for a particular society. Every giving social communitythere is a certain place, definedposition in the social structuretour. Some social communitiestake more advantageous positions, others are less advantageouse. In addition, in the socialcommunity, separate social groups (separate individuals)
also occupy different socialdifferent positions and have different socialal statuses (Fig. 1).

2. Institutional structure the cheers of society is the aggregate interacting social media institutions that ensure the stability chivye forms of organization and management of society. Every institute (a group of institutions) regulates relationships in a certain area societies, e.g. political institutions (state, parties etc.) regulate relations in the political sphere, economic - in the economic (Fig. 2).

3. The institutional system of society can be represented as a matrix, the cells (institutions, statuses) of which are filled with specific people from certain social groups and communities. Thus, there is a "superimposition" of the social composition of society on the institutional structure. At the same time, specific people can occupy and release certain cells (statuses), and the matrix (structure) itself is relatively stable. For example, the President of Ukraine, in accordance with the Constitution of Ukraine, is re-elected every five years, and the status of the President and the institution presidencies remain unchanged for many years; parents grow old and die, and their statuses are occupied by new generations.

4. In a democratic society, all social institutions are formally (legally) equal. However, in real life, some institutions may dominate others. For example, political institutions can impose their will on economic ones and vice versa. Each social institution has its own social statuses, which are also not equivalent. For example, the status of the president in political institutions is paramount; the status of a member of parliament is more significant than the status of an ordinary voter; the status of the owner of a firm or manager in economic institutions is more preferable than the status of an ordinary worker, etc.

social community

A social community is a large or small group of people with common social characteristics, occupying the same social position, united by common activities (or value orientations).

Society as an integral socio-cultural system consists of many individuals who are simultaneously members of large and small social communities. For example, a specific individual - a citizen of his country - can simultaneously be a member of such large social communities as ethnic, territorial, professional, etc. In addition, he, as a rule, is a member of several small social groups at once - a family, a work team, a scientific department , a circle of friends, etc. People of the same profession or one type of activity (miners, doctors, teachers, metallurgists, nuclear scientists) unite in a community; with common ethnic characteristics (Russians, Tatars, Evenks); with approximately the same social status (representatives of the lower, middle or upper classes), etc.

The social community is not the sum of individual individuals, but is an integral system and, like any system, has its own sources of self-development and is the subject of social interaction.

Social communities are distinguished by a wide variety of types and forms, for example, according to the following features:

in terms of quantitative composition - from two or three people to tens and even hundreds of millions;
by duration of existence - from several minutes to many millennia;
according to the basic system-forming features - professional, territorial, ethnic, demographic,
sociocultural, confessional, etc.

The main form of social communities are social groups.

Society in its concrete life reality acts as a set of many social groups. The whole life of a person from birth to death takes place in these groups: family, school, student, industrial, army teams, sports team, circle of friends, girlfriends, etc. A social group is a kind of intermediary between an individual and society. This is the immediate environment in which social processes arise and develop. In this sense, it performs the functions of a link in the "individual-society" system. A person is aware of his belonging to society and his social interests through belonging to a certain social group, through which he participates in the life of society. Membership in various groups determines the status and authority of a person in society.

2. Social stratification.

Even Plato and Aristotle divided society (the state) into three main social strata: the highest, the middle and the lowest. Subsequently, the division of social groups and individuals into categories was called the social class structure of society.

Social class structure of society - it is a set of interacting social classes, social strata and relations between them.

Basics modern approach to the study of the social class structure of society and the determination of people's belonging to certain social strata (strata) were laid by M. Weber. He considered the social structure of society as multidimensional, multilevel. Without denying the importance of the economic factor in the social inequality of people, M. Weber introduced such additional criteria for determining social belonging as social prestige(social status) and attitude to power(the ability and ability to use the resources of power). Social prestige, according to M. Weber, may not depend on wealth and power. For example, scientists, lawyers, priests, public figures may have relatively small incomes, but at the same time have higher prestige than many rich entrepreneurs or high-ranking officials.

A significant contribution to the development of the theory of stratification was made by P. Sorokin, T. Parsois, J. Shils, B. Barber, W. Moore and others. Thus, the sociologist P. Sorokin most clearly substantiated the criteria for people to belong to one or another stratum. He identifies three main criteria: economic, professional, political.

Theory of social stratification gives a more realistic idea of the social structure of modern society than the Marxist doctrine of classes. It is based on the principle of differentiation (stratification) of people into social classes and strata (strata) according to such criteria as income level, authority, prestige of the profession, level of education, etc. At the same time, the concept of “class” is used as a collective term that unites people with roughly the same status.

Social stratification is the differentiation (stratification) of a certain set of people into social classes and strata in a hierarchical rank (higher and lower). Strata (from lat. stratum - layer, layer) - a social layer of people with similar social indicators. The basis of the stratification structure is the natural and social inequality of people.

The social class structure of modern society is usually divided into three main social classes: higher, middle and lower. For greater differentiation according to certain social characteristics, each class, in turn, can be divided into separate social strata-strata.

The number of divisions into classes and strata may depend on the specific tasks of sociological research. If the purpose of the research is to obtain general idea about the social structure of society, the number of divisions will be small. If it is necessary to obtain more detailed information about certain social strata or about the structure as a whole, then the number of divisions can be increased in accordance with the objectives of the study.

When studying the social structure, it must be taken into account that the social composition of society (division into social communities), as a rule, does not coincide with social class differentiation. For example, a highly skilled worker in terms of income, lifestyle and ways of satisfying his needs can be classified as a middle class, while a low-skilled worker can be classified as a lower class.

Each society seeks to institutionalize social inequality so that no one can arbitrarily and randomly change the structure of social stratification. For this, there are special mechanisms (institutions) that protect and reproduce the social hierarchy. For example, the institution of property gives different chances to a wealthy heir and to a person from a poor family; the institute of education makes it easier to make a career for those who have acquired the relevant knowledge; membership in a political party provides an opportunity to make a political career, etc.

AT different areas individual can occupy various social positions. For example, a person with a high political status may receive relatively small incomes, and a rich entrepreneur may not have proper education, etc. Therefore, to determine the social status specific individual or social group in empirical research use integral indicator social position (integral status), which is determined by the totality of all measurements.

In addition to this method, there are others, for example, the method of self-classification, the essence of which is self-assessment of one's class affiliation. It cannot be considered objective in terms of evaluation criteria, but to a large extent reflects the class consciousness of people.

3. Social mobility and marginality.

The relative stability of the social structure of society does not mean that there are no movements, changes and displacements in it. Some generations of people leave, and their places (statuses) are occupied by others; new types of activity, new professions, new social statuses appear; an individual during his life can repeatedly (forced) change his social position, etc.

The movement of people from one social group, class, or stratum to another is called social mobility. The term "social mobility" was introduced into sociology by P. A. Sorokin, who considered social mobility as any change in social status. In modern sociology, the theory of social mobility is widely used to study the social structure of society.

There are the following types social mobility:

vertical upward and downward mobility. For example, an individual takes more than high position, significantly improves his financial situation, wins elections or vice versa, loses a prestigious job, his company goes bankrupt, etc.;
horizontal mobility - movement of an individual or group within one social stratum;
individual mobility - a separate individual moves asocial space in one direction or another;
group mobility - entire social groups, social strata and classes change their social position in the social structure. For example, former peasants move into the category of hired workers; miners of mines liquidated due to unprofitability become workers in other areas.

Movements of large social groups occur especially intensively during periods of economic restructuring, acute socio-economic crises, major socio-political upheavals (revolution, civil war, etc.). For example, the revolutionary events of 1917 in Russia and Ukraine led to the overthrow of the old ruling class and the formation of a new ruling elite, new social strata. Serious political and economic changes are also taking place in Ukraine at present. Socio-economic relations, ideological guidelines, political priorities are changing, new social classes and social strata are emerging.

Changing social positions (statuses) requires considerable efforts from the individual (group). New status, a new role, a new socio-cultural environment dictate their own terms, their own rules of the game. Adaptation to new conditions is often associated with a radical restructuring of life orientations. In addition, the new social environment itself has a kind of filters, carrying out the selection of "ours" and the rejection of "them". It happens that a person, having lost his socio-cultural environment, cannot adapt to the new one. Then he, as it were, "gets stuck" between two social strata, between two cultures. For example, a wealthy former small entrepreneur is trying to get into the higher strata of society. He, as it were, emerges from his old environment, but he is also a stranger to the new environment - "a hodgepodge in the nobility." Another example: a former research worker, forced to earn a living as a cart driver or small business, is weighed down by his position; for him the new environment is alien. Often he becomes the object of ridicule and humiliation on the part of less educated, but more adapted to the conditions of their environment, "colleagues in the shop."

Marginality(French that rgipa1 - extreme) is a socio-psychological concept. This is not only a certain intermediate position of the individual in the social structure, but also his own self-perception, self-perception. If a homeless person feels comfortable in his social environment, then he is not marginalized. A marginal is someone who believes that their current position is temporary or accidental. People who are forced to change their type of activity, profession, socio-cultural environment, place of residence, etc. (for example, refugees) experience their marginality especially hard.

It is necessary to distinguish marginality as constituent part natural social mobility and forced marginality, that arose in a crisis society, which becomes a tragedy for large social groups. “Natural” marginality does not have a mass and long-term character and does not pose a threat to sustainable development society. “Forced” mass marginality, which takes on a protracted long-term character, indicates a crisis state of society.

4. Social institutions.

A social institution is a relatively stable complex (system) of norms, rules, customs, traditions, principles, statuses and roles that regulate relations in various spheres of society. For example, political institutions regulate relations in the political sphere, economic institutions - in the economic sphere, etc.

However, it must be borne in mind that a social institution is a multifunctional system. Therefore, one institution may be involved in the performance of several functions in different areas of society, and vice versa, several institutions may be involved in the performance of one function. For example, the institution of marriage regulates marital relations, participates in the regulation of family relations and at the same time can contribute to the regulation of property relations, inheritance, etc.

Social institutions are formed and created to meet the most important individual and social needs and interests. They are the main regulatory mechanisms in all major areas of human life. Institutions ensure the stability and predictability of people's relations and behavior, protect the rights and freedoms of citizens, protect society from disorganization, and form a social system.

A social institution should be distinguished from specific organizations, social groups and individuals. The ways of interaction and behavior prescribed by institutions are impersonal. For example, the institution of the family is not specific parents, children and other family members, but a certain system of formal and informal norms and rules, social statuses and roles, on the basis of which family relations are built. Therefore, any person involved in the activities of an institution must comply with the relevant requirements. If a person does not properly fulfill the social role prescribed by the institution, then he can be deprived of his status (a parent can be deprived of his parental rights, an official - of his position, etc.).

To perform its functions, a social institution forms (creates) the necessary institutions within which its activities are organized. In addition, each institution must have necessary funds and resources.

For example, for functioning of the institute of education, institutions such as schools, colleges, universities are created, the necessary buildings and structures are built, funds and other resources are allocated.

All human life is organized, directed, supported and controlled by social institutions. So, a child, as a rule, is born in one of the institutions of the Institute of Health - a maternity hospital, primary socialization takes place at the Institute of the Family, receives education and a profession in various institutions of institutions of general and vocational education; the security of the individual is provided by such institutions as the state, government, courts, police, etc.; maintain health health institutions and social protection. At the same time, each institution in its field performs the functions of social control and forces people to obey accepted norms. The main social institutions in society are:

institutions of family and marriage- the need for the reproduction of the human race and primary socialization;

political institutions(state, parties, etc.) - the need for security, order and management;

economic institutions(production, property, etc.) - the need for obtaining means of subsistence;

educational institutions- the need for the socialization of the younger generations, the transfer of knowledge, and the training of personnel;

cultural institutions- the need for the reproduction of the socio-cultural environment, for the transfer of cultural norms and values to the younger generations;

institutions of religion- the need to solve spiritual problems.

The institutional system of society does not remain unchanged. As society develops, new social needs arise and new institutions are formed to meet them. At the same time, the “old” institutions are either reformed (adapted to new conditions) or disappear. For example, such social institutions as the institution of slavery, the institution of serfdom, the institution of the monarchy were eliminated in many countries. They were replaced by the institution of the presidency, the institution of parliamentarism, the institutions of civil society, and such institutions as the institutions of family and marriage, the institutions of religion have been significantly transformed.

5. Social organizations.

Society as a social reality is ordered not only institutionally, but also organizationally. Social organization is a certain way joint activities people, after which it takes the form of an orderly, regulated, coordinated, aimed at achieving specific goals of interaction. Organization as a process of establishing and coordinating the behavior of individuals is inherent in all social formations: associations of people, organizations, institutions, etc.

Social organization - a social group focused on achieving interrelated specific goals and the formation of highly formalized structures.

formal organizations. They build social relations on the basis of regulation of connections, statuses, norms. They are, for example, industrial enterprise, firm, university, municipal structure (mayor's office). The basis of formal organization is the division of labor, its specialization on a functional basis. The more developed the specialization, the richer and more complex the administrative functions will be, the more multifaceted the structure of the organization. The formal organization resembles a pyramid in which tasks are differentiated at several levels. In addition to the horizontal division of labor, it is characterized by coordination, leadership (hierarchy of job positions) and various vertical specializations. Formal organization is rational, it is characterized by service connections between individuals; it is fundamentally impersonal; designed for abstract individuals between whom standardized relationships are established based on formal business communication. Under certain conditions, these features of formal organization turn it into a bureaucratic system.

Informal organizations . They are based on comradely relations and the personal choice of the participants' connections and are characterized by social independence. These are amateur groups, leadership relationships, sympathies, etc. The informal organization has a significant influence on the formal and seeks to change the existing relations in it according to its needs.

The vast majority of the goals that people and social communities set for themselves cannot be achieved without social organizations, which predetermines their omnipresence and diversity. The most significant among them:

Organizations for the production of goods and services (industrial, agricultural, service enterprises and
firms, financial institutions, banks);

Organizations in the field of education (preschool, school,
higher educational establishments, institutions of additional education);

Organizations in the field of medical care,
health, recreation, physical education and
sports (hospitals, sanatoriums, tourist camps, stadiums);

Research organizations;

Legislative and executive authorities.

They are also called business organizations that perform socially useful functions: cooperation, cooperation, subordination (subordination), management, social control.

In general, every organization exists in a specific physical, technological, cultural, political and social environment, must adapt to it and coexist with it. There are no self-sufficient, closed organizations. All of them, in order to exist, work, achieve goals, must have numerous connections with the outside world.

social structure

social structure- a set of interrelated elements that make up the internal structure of society. The concept of "social structure" is used both in ideas about society as a social system in which the social structure provides an internal order for connecting elements, and environment establishes the external boundaries of the system, and when describing society through the category of social space. In the latter case, the social structure is understood as the unity of functionally interconnected social positions and social fields.

History of the term

Apparently, the first to use the term "social structure" was Alexis Tocqueville, a French thinker, politician and statesman, one of the founders of liberal political theory. Later, Karl Marx, Herbert Spencer, Max Weber, Ferdinand Tönnies and Emile Durkheim contributed greatly to the creation of the structural concept in sociology.

One of the earliest and most comprehensive analyzes of the social structure was carried out by K. Marx, who showed the dependence of the political, cultural, and religious aspects of life on the mode of production (the basic structure of society). Marx argued that the economic basis determines to a large extent the cultural and political superstructure of society. Subsequent Marxist theorists, such as L. Althusser, proposed more complex relationships, believing that cultural and political institutions are relatively autonomous and dependent on economic factors only in the final analysis (“in the last resort”). But the Marxist view of the social structure of society was not the only one. Emile Durkheim introduced the idea that various social institutions and practices played an important role in ensuring the functional integration of society into a social structure that unites various parts into a single whole. In this context, Durkheim identified two forms of structural relationships: mechanical and organic solidarities. The German sociologist Ferdinand Tönnies was one of the first to publish a study in 1905. contemporary problems social structure of American society. His compatriot, Max Weber, researched and analyzed the organizational mechanisms in modern society: the market, bureaucracy (private enterprise and public administration) and politics (e.g. democracy). In parallel, this concept was developed in their works by such sociologists as Herbert Spencer and Georg Simmel, Talcott Parsons, Peter Blau and Anthony Giddens, Margaret Archer and Immanuel Wallerstein, Pierre Bourdieu and Jacques Derrida.

The structure of the social system

The structure of a social system is a way of interconnecting the subsystems, components and elements interacting in it, ensuring its integrity. The main elements (social units) of the social structure of society are social communities, social groups and social organizations.
The social system, according to T. Parsons, must meet certain requirements (AGIL), namely:
A. - must be adapted to the environment (adaptation);
G. - she must have goals (goal achievement);
I. - all its elements must be coordinated (integration);
L. - the values in it must be preserved (maintenance of the sample).

T. Parsons believes that society is a special type of social system with high specialization and self-sufficiency. Its functional unity is provided by social subsystems. To the social subsystems of society, as a system, T. Parsons refers to the following: economics (adaptation), politics (goal achievement), culture (maintenance of the model). The function of the integration of society is performed by the system of "societal community", which mainly contains the structures of norms.

Structure of social space

Social structure implies static aspects of existence social forms, which in the social space are realized in the dynamics of specific flows of human activity, social processes. The social world is thus a multidimensional space with many social fields, in each of which individuals and their groups occupy their respective positions, and the "vortex currents" and "lines of force" of the social space and social fields direct the flows of human activity.

The social space is "fastened" by the social structure - a set of interconnected and interacting social positions, hierarchically ordered among themselves through social stratification, which implies the presence of "upper", "middle" and "lower" layers, vertical and horizontal channels of social movement, etc. By dividing the social space into structural elements- positions at a particular point in space can be found and evaluated by various social agents according to their status positions.

11. Social connections and relationships.

social connection- a social action that expresses the dependence and compatibility of people or groups This is a set of special dependencies of some social subjects on others, their mutual relations that unite people into the corresponding social communities and testify to their collective existence This is a concept that denotes any socio-cultural duties of individuals or groups of individuals relative to each other.

social relations- these are relatively stable ties between individuals and social groups, due to their unequal position in society and roles in public life

The subjects of social relations are various social communities and individuals

1 - social relations of socio-historical communities (between countries, classes, nations, social groups, town and countryside);

2 - social relations between public organizations, institutions and labor collectives;

3 - social relations in the form of interpersonal interaction and communication within labor collectives

There are different types of social relations:

by the scope of power: horizontal relations and vertical relations;

according to the degree of regulation: formal (certified) and informal;

by the way individuals communicate: impersonal or indirect, interpersonal or direct;

for subjects of activity: between organizational, intraorganizational;

according to the level of justice: fair and unfair

The basis of the differences between social relations are motives and needs, the main of which are primary and secondary needs.

As a result of the contradiction of social relations, social conflict becomes one of the forms of social interaction.

12. Social groups: essence and classification.

social group is a set of individuals interacting in a certain way based on the shared expectations of each member of the group in relation to others.

In this definition, one can see two essential conditions necessary for a set to be considered a group: 1) the existence of interactions between its members; 2) the emergence of shared expectations of each member of the group regarding its other members. The social group is characterized by a number of specific features:

stability, duration of existence;

certainty of composition and boundaries;

general system of values and social norms;

awareness of one's belonging to a given social community;

the voluntary nature of the association of individuals (for small social groups);

the unification of individuals by external conditions of existence (for large social groups);

the ability to enter as elements in other social communities.

social group- a relatively stable set of people connected by common relationships, activities, its motivation and norms Group classification, as a rule, is based on the subject area of analysis, in which the main feature that determines the stability of a given group formation is singled out. Seven main signs of classification:

based on ethnicity or race;

based on the level of cultural development;

based on the types of structure that exists in groups;

based on the tasks and functions performed by the group in wider communities;

based on the prevailing types of contacts between group members;

on the basis of various types of connections that exist in groups;

on other principles.

13. Social institutions: essence, typology, functions.

social institution- a historically established stable form of organization of joint activities and relations of people, performing socially significant functions.

Typology social institutions can be composed on the basis of the idea that each institution satisfies one or another fundamental social need. The five fundamental social needs (in the reproduction of the family; in security and social order; in obtaining a livelihood; in the socialization of the younger generation; in solving spiritual problems) correspond to five basic social institutions: the institution of the family, the political institution (state), the economic institution (production) , education, religion.

The function of consolidation and reproduction of social relations. Each social institution is created in response to the emergence of a certain social need in order to develop certain standards of behavior among its members.

The adaptive function lies in the fact that the functioning of social institutions in society ensures the adaptability, adaptability of society to changing conditions of the internal and external environment, both natural and social.

The integrative function consists in the fact that the social institutions existing in society, through their actions, norms, prescriptions, ensure interdependence, mutual responsibility, solidarity and cohesion of the individuals and / or all members of this society that make up them.

The communicative function lies in the fact that information (scientific, artistic, political, etc.) produced in one social institution is distributed both within this institution and outside it, in interaction between institutions and organizations operating in society.

The socializing function is manifested in the fact that social institutions play a decisive role in the formation and development of the individual, in the assimilation of social values, norms and roles, in the orientation and realization of her social status.

The regulatory function is embodied in the fact that social institutions in the process of their functioning ensure the regulation of interactions between individuals and social communities through the development of certain norms and standards of behavior, a system of rewards for the most effective actions that comply with the norms, values, expectations of society or the community, and sanctions (punishments). ) for actions that deviate from these values and norms.

Sociology studies society at its various scales. It is not limited to social formations that function within the boundaries of modern nation-states, but studies everything social, from the individual to humanity as a whole. At the middle levels of the social order, between the individual and the global, sociology deals with individual elements of the social structure.

The social structure of society is a stable set of its elements, as well as connections and relationships that groups and communities of people enter into regarding the conditions of their life. The structure of society is represented by a complex interconnected system of statuses and roles. Although social structure is formed through the functioning of social institutions, this is not all social organization but only its form. The social structure is based on the social division of labor, property relations, and other factors of social inequality. The advantages of social inequality lie in the opportunities for professional specialization and the prerequisites for the growth of labor productivity. The disadvantages of social inequality are associated with social conflicts that it generates. An empirical indicator of social inequality is decile coefficient of income differentiation, or the ratio of the incomes of the richest 10% to the incomes of the poorest 10% in society. In highly developed industrial countries it ranges from 4 to 8. Today in Belarus it is in the range of 5.6-5.9. For comparison: in Kazakhstan the decile coefficient is 7.4, in Ukraine - 8.7, in Poland - 16.5, in Russia - 16.8.

The initial element of the social structure of society as an integral system is a person and diverse social communities in which people are united by family, economic, ethnic, religious, political and other ties. Integration and coordination of the actions of many people and various groups is carried out through social institutions.

The concept of "social structure" reflects social inequality in all its manifestations, and the concept of "social stratification" - only in a vertical section.
The signs by which people unite into strata are, first of all, the level of income, the level of education and qualifications, the prestige of the profession and access to power. In accordance with the place in the social hierarchy, various social strata can be grouped into classes. An indicator of a person's position in the class structure of society is life style- a set of actions and objects of property that are perceived by the individual and others as symbols of his social status.

In Marxist theory classes - These are large groups of people that differ:

By place in a historically defined system social production;
- in relation to the means of production (for the most part, fixed and formalized in laws);
- by role in public organization labor;
- according to the methods of obtaining and the size of the share of social wealth that they have.

Allocate main(dominant within a certain socio-economic formation) and non-core classes(the existence of which is due to the preservation in a given socio-economic formation of the remnants of the former or the emergence of the beginnings of new production relations). Such an understanding presents the class structure of society less rigidly and brings the analysis of social structure closer to stratification analysis. However, the allocation of excessively large groups of the population within the framework of the social structure makes social analysis too abstract and does not allow one to take into account quite significant intra-class differences. In part, this lack of class analysis was overcome by M. Weber, who Class - a set of individuals with a relatively equal share of power, wealth and prestige. The social structure is presented in more detail in the theory of social stratification. A class can also be defined as a group that is united by professional, property, and social and legal interests.

Weber's interpretation of classes was developed within the framework of the functional (status) concept of classes (R. Aron, D. Bell, T. Parsons, W. Warner, X. Schelsky, etc.), in which the following class-forming features are distinguished: income level, education level and qualifications, the prestige of the profession, access to power.

Upper class (usually 1-2% of the population) - these are the owners of big capital, the industrial and financial elite, the highest political elite, the highest bureaucracy, the generals, the most successful representatives of the creative elite. They usually own a significant part of the property (in industrialized countries - about 20% of public wealth) and have a serious influence on politics, the economy, culture, education and other areas of public life.

lower class - low-skilled and unskilled workers with a low level of education and income, marginalized and lumpenized strata, many of which are characterized by significant discrepancies between relatively high expectations, social aspirations and a low assessment of their real capabilities and personal results achieved in society. Representatives of such strata are embedded in market relations and achieve middle-class living standards with great difficulty.

Middle class - a set of groups of self-employed and wage labor occupying a "middle", intermediate position between the highest and lowest strata in most status hierarchies (property, income, power) and having a common identity.

1 what is the social structure of society. What is social structure

The structure of society as a system

Horizontal and vertical social structure of society

Social status and social prestige

Practice set

History of the term

The structure of the social system

Structure of social space

see also

See what "Social Structure" is in other dictionaries:

11. Social connections and relationships.

12. Social groups: essence and classification.

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