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The presentation is an additional material for the lessons on the development of energy. The power industry of any country is the basis for the development of productive forces, the creation of the material and technical base of society. The presentation reflects the problems and prospects of all types of energy, promising (new) types of energy, using the experience of museum pedagogy, independent research work of students (work with the Japan Today magazine), creative work of students (posters). The presentation can be used in geography lessons in grades 9 and 10, in extracurricular activities (classes in electives, elective courses), in conducting Geography Week "April 22 - Earth Day", in ecology and biology lessons "Global problems of mankind. Raw material and energy problem”.
In my work, I used the method of problem-based learning, which consisted in creating problem situations for students and resolving them in the process of joint activities of students and teachers. At the same time, the maximum independence of students was taken into account and under the general guidance of a teacher who directs the activities of students.
Problem-based learning allows not only to form in students the necessary system of knowledge, skills and abilities, to achieve a high level of development of schoolchildren, but, most importantly, it allows you to form a special style of mental activity, research activity and independence of students. When working with this presentation, students show an actual direction - the research activity of schoolchildren.
The industry unites a group of industries engaged in the extraction and transportation of fuel, energy generation and its transfer to the consumer.
Natural resources that are used to generate energy are fuel resources, hydro resources, nuclear energy, as well as alternative forms of energy. The location of most industries depends on the development of electricity. Our country has huge reserves of fuel - energy resources. Russia was, is and will be one of the world's leading energy powers. And this is not only because the country's subsoil contains 12% of the world's coal reserves, 13% of oil and 36% of the world's natural gas reserves, which are enough to fully meet their own needs and for export to neighboring countries. Russia has become one of the world's leading energy powers, primarily due to the creation of a unique production, scientific, technical and human potential of the fuel and energy complex.
Raw material problem
Mineral resources- the primary source, the initial basis of human civilization in almost all phases of its development:
– Fuel minerals;
– Ore minerals;
- Non-metallic minerals.
Today's energy consumption is growing exponentially. Even if we take into account that the growth rate of electricity consumption will decrease somewhat due to the improvement of energy-saving technologies, the reserves of electrical raw materials will last for a maximum of 100 years. However, the situation is aggravated by the discrepancy between the structure of stocks and consumption of organic raw materials. Thus, 80% of fossil fuel reserves are coal and only 20% are oil and gas, while 8/10 of modern energy consumption is oil and gas.
Consequently, the time frame is even narrower. However, only today humanity is getting rid of ideological ideas that they are practically endless. Mineral resources are limited, virtually irreplaceable.
Energy problem.
Today, the energy of the world is based on energy sources:
– Combustible minerals;
– Combustible organic fossils;
- The energy of rivers. Non-traditional types of energy;
- The energy of the atom.
With the current rate of increase in the cost of the Earth's fuel resources, the problem of using renewable energy sources is becoming increasingly relevant and characterizes the energy and economic independence of the state.
Advantages and disadvantages of TPP.
TPP advantages:
1. The cost of electricity at hydroelectric power plants is very low;
2. HPP generators can be turned on and off quickly enough depending on energy consumption;
3. No air pollution.
Disadvantages of TPP:
1. Construction of a hydroelectric power station can be longer and more expensive than other energy sources;
2. Reservoirs can cover large areas;
3. Dams can harm fisheries by blocking the way to spawning grounds.
Advantages and disadvantages of HPP.
Advantages of HPP:
– Built quickly and cheaply;
– Work in a constant mode;
– Placed almost everywhere;
– The predominance of thermal power plants in the energy sector of the Russian Federation.
Disadvantages of HPP:
– Consume a large amount of fuel;
– Requires a long stop during repairs;
– A lot of heat is lost in the atmosphere, a lot of solid and harmful gases are emitted into the atmosphere;
– Major environmental pollutants.
In the structure of electricity generation in the world, the first place belongs to thermal power plants (TPPs) - their share is 62%.
An alternative to fossil fuels and a renewable energy source is hydropower. Hydroelectric power plant (HPP)- a power plant that uses the energy of a water stream as an energy source. Hydroelectric power plants are usually built on rivers by constructing dams and reservoirs. Hydropower is the generation of electricity through the use of renewable river, tidal, geothermal water resources. This use of renewable water resources involves managing floods, strengthening riverbeds, transferring water resources to areas suffering from drought, and conserving groundwater flows.
However, even here the energy source is quite limited. This is due to the fact that large rivers, as a rule, are far from industrial centers or their capacities are almost completely used. Thus, hydropower, which currently provides about 10% of the world's energy production, will not be able to significantly increase this figure.
Problems and prospects of nuclear power plants
In Russia, the share of nuclear energy reaches 12%. The reserves of mined uranium in Russia have an electrical potential of 15 trillion. kWh, this is as much as all our power plants can produce in 35 years. Today, only nuclear power
capable of drastically and in a short time to weaken the phenomenon of the greenhouse effect. The current problem is the safety of nuclear power plants. The year 2000 was the beginning of the transition to fundamentally new approaches to standardization and ensuring the radiation safety of nuclear power plants.
Over 40 years of development of nuclear energy in the world, about 400 power units have been built in 26 countries of the world. The main advantages of nuclear energy are high final profitability and the absence of emissions of combustion products into the atmosphere, the main disadvantages are the potential danger of radioactive contamination of the environment by fission products of nuclear fuel during an accident and the problem of processing used nuclear fuel.
Unconventional (alternative energy)
1. Solar energy. This is the use of solar radiation to obtain energy in any form. Solar energy uses a renewable energy source and may become environmentally friendly in the future.
Advantages of solar energy:
– Public availability and inexhaustibility of the source;
– Theoretically, complete safety for the environment.
Disadvantages of solar energy:
– The flow of solar energy on the Earth's surface is highly dependent on latitude and climate;
- The solar power plant does not work at night and does not work efficiently enough in the morning and evening twilight;
Photovoltaic cells contain poisonous substances such as lead, cadmium, gallium, arsenic, etc., and their production consumes a lot of other hazardous substances.
2. Wind power. This is an energy industry specializing in the use of wind energy - the kinetic energy of air masses in the atmosphere. Since wind energy is a consequence of the activity of the sun, it is classified as a renewable energy.
Prospects for wind energy.
Wind power is a booming industry, and at the end of 2007 the total installed capacity of all wind turbines was 94.1 gigawatts, a five-fold increase since 2000. Wind farms around the world produced about 200 billion kWh in 2007, which is about 1.3% of the world's electricity consumption. Coastal wind farm Middelgrunden, near Copenhagen, Denmark. At the time of construction, it was the largest in the world.
Opportunities for the implementation of wind energy in Russia. In Russia, the possibilities of wind energy to date remain practically unrealized. A conservative attitude towards the future development of the fuel and energy complex practically hinders the effective introduction of wind energy, especially in the Northern regions of Russia, as well as in the steppe zone of the Southern Federal District, and in particular in the Volgograd region.
3. Thermonuclear energy. The sun is a natural thermonuclear reactor. Even more interesting, albeit a relatively distant prospect, is the use of nuclear fusion energy. Thermonuclear reactors, according to calculations, will consume less fuel per unit of energy, and both this fuel itself (deuterium, lithium, helium-3) and their synthesis products are non-radioactive and, therefore, environmentally safe.
Prospects for thermonuclear energy. This area of energy has a huge potential, currently, within the framework of the "ITER" project, which involves Europe, China, Russia, the USA, South Korea and Japan, France is building the largest thermonuclear reactor, the purpose of which is to bring out the CNF (Controlled Thermonuclear Fusion) to a new level. Construction is planned to be completed in 2010.
4. Biofuel, biogas. Biofuel is a fuel from biological raw materials, obtained, as a rule, as a result of the processing of sugar cane stalks or seeds of rapeseed, corn, soybeans. Different liquid biofuels (for engines internal combustion, for example, ethanol, methanol, biodiesel) and gaseous (biogas, hydrogen).
Types of biofuels:
– Biomethanol
– Bioethanol
– Biobutanol
– Dimethyl ether
– Biodiesel
– Biogas
– Hydrogen
On the this moment the most developed are biodiesel and hydrogen.
5. Geothermal energy. Hidden beneath Japan's volcanic islands is vast amounts of geothermal energy that can be harnessed by extracting hot water and steam. Benefit: Emits about 20 times less carbon dioxide when generating electricity, reducing its impact on the global environment.
6. The energy of waves, ebbs and flows. In Japan, the most important source of energy is wave turbines, which convert the vertical movement of ocean waves into air pressure that rotates the turbines of electric generators. On the coast of Japan, a large number of buoys have been installed that use the energy of the ebbs and flows. This is how ocean energy is used to ensure the safety of ocean transport.
The huge potential of solar energy could theoretically provide all the world's energy needs. But the efficiency of converting heat into electricity is only 10%. This limits the possibilities of solar energy. Fundamental difficulties also arise when analyzing the possibilities of creating high-power generators using wind energy, ebbs and flows, geothermal energy, biogas, vegetable fuel, etc. All this leads to the conclusion that the possibilities of the considered so-called "reproducible" and relatively environmentally friendly energy resources are limited, at least in the relatively near future. Although the effect of their use in solving individual problems of energy supply can already be quite impressive.
Of course, there is optimism about the possibilities of thermonuclear energy and other efficient ways of obtaining energy, intensively studied by science, but at the current scale of energy production. With the practical development of these possible sources, it will take several decades due to the high capital intensity and the corresponding inertia in the implementation of projects.
Research work of students:
1. Special report "Green Energy" for the future: “Japan is the world leader in the production of solar electricity. 90% of the solar energy produced in Japan is generated by solar panels in ordinary homes. The Japanese government has set a goal in 2010 to receive approximately 4.8 million kilowatts of energy from solar panels. Biomass electricity production in Japan. Methane gas is emitted from kitchen waste. This gas runs an engine that generates electricity, and favorable conditions are also created to protect the environment.
To assess the prospects of thermal power plants, first of all, it is necessary to understand their advantages and disadvantages in comparison with other sources of electricity.
Benefits include the following.
- 1. Unlike hydroelectric power plants thermal power plants can be placed relatively freely, taking into account the fuel used. Gas-fired thermal power plants can be built anywhere, since the transport of gas and fuel oil is relatively cheap (compared to coal). It is desirable to place pulverized coal thermal power plants near sources of coal mining. To date, the "coal" thermal power industry has developed and has a pronounced regional character.
- 2. The unit cost of installed capacity (the cost of 1 kW of installed capacity) and the construction period of TPPs are much shorter than those of NPPs and HPPs.
- 3. The production of electricity at thermal power plants, unlike hydroelectric power plants, does not depend on the season and is determined only by the delivery of fuel.
- 4. The areas of alienation of economic lands for thermal power plants are significantly smaller than for nuclear power plants, and, of course, cannot be compared with hydroelectric power plants, whose impact on the environment may be far from regional. Examples are the cascades of hydroelectric power stations on the river. Volga and Dnieper.
- 5. Almost any fuel can be burned at TPPs, including the lowest-grade coals ballasted with ash, water, and rock.
- 6. Unlike nuclear power plants, there are no problems with the disposal of thermal power plants at the end of their service life. As a rule, the infrastructure of a thermal power plant significantly “survives” the main equipment (boilers and turbines) installed on it, and buildings, a turbine hall, water supply and fuel supply systems, etc., which make up the bulk of the funds, serve for a long time. Most of the TPPs built over 80 years according to the GOELRO plan are still operating and will continue to operate after the installation of new, more advanced turbines and boilers.
Along with these advantages, TPP has a number of disadvantages.
- 1. Thermal power plants are the most environmentally "dirty" sources of electricity, especially those that operate on high-ash sour fuel. True, to say that nuclear power plants that do not have constant emissions into the atmosphere, but create a constant threat of radioactive contamination and have problems with the storage and processing of spent nuclear fuel, as well as the disposal of the nuclear power plant itself after the end of its service life, or hydroelectric power plants, flooding huge areas of economic land and changing regional climate, are ecologically more "clean" is possible only with a significant degree of conventionality.
- 2. Traditional thermal power plants have a relatively low efficiency (better than nuclear power plants, but much worse than CCGT).
- 3. Unlike HPPs, TPPs hardly participate in covering the variable part of the daily electrical load schedule.
- 4. Thermal power plants are significantly dependent on the supply of fuel, often imported.
Despite all these shortcomings, thermal power plants are the main producers of electricity in most countries of the world and will remain so for at least the next 50 years.
Prospects for the construction of powerful condensing thermal power plants are closely related to the type of fossil fuel used. Despite the great advantages of liquid fuel (oil, fuel oil) as an energy carrier (high calorie content, ease of transportation), its use at thermal power plants will be increasingly reduced not only due to limited reserves, but also due to its great value as a raw material for petrochemical industry. For Russia, the export value of liquid fuel (oil) is also of considerable importance. Therefore, liquid fuel (fuel oil) at TPPs will be used either as a backup fuel at gas-oil TPPs, or as an auxiliary fuel at pulverized coal-fired TPPs, which ensures stable combustion of coal dust in the boiler under certain modes.
The use of natural gas at condensing steam turbine thermal power plants is irrational: for this, utilization-type combined-cycle plants based on high-temperature gas turbines should be used.
Thus, the distant prospect of using classical steam turbine thermal power plants both in Russia and abroad is primarily associated with the use of coal, especially low-grade coal. This, of course, does not mean the cessation of operation of gas-oil thermal power plants, which will be gradually replaced by PTU.
Modern thermal power systems industrial enterprises consist of three parts, the volume and efficiency of consumption of fuel and energy resources depend on the effectiveness of their interaction. These parts are:
sources of energy resources, i.e. enterprises producing the required types of energy resources;
systems of transport and distribution of energy resources between consumers. Most often, these are thermal and electrical networks; consumers of energy resources.
Each of the participants in the system producer - consumer of energy resources has its own equipment and is characterized by certain indicators of energy and thermodynamic efficiency. In this case, a situation often arises when the high efficiency indicators of some of the participants in the system are offset by others, so that the overall efficiency of the heat and power system turns out to be low. The most difficult stage is the consumption of energy resources.
The level of use of fuel and energy resources in the domestic industry leaves much to be desired. A survey of enterprises in the petrochemical industry showed that the actual consumption of energy resources exceeds the theoretically required by about 1.7-2.6 times, i.e. the targeted use of energy resources is about 43% of the real costs of production technologies. This situation is observed at the enterprises of the chemical, rubber, food and industries, where thermal secondary resources are insufficiently or inefficiently used.
The number of VERs that are not used in industrial heat technology and heat power systems of an enterprise include mainly heat flows of liquids (t< 90 0 С) и газов (t< 150 0 С) (см. табл. 1.8).
At present, quite effective developments are known that make it possible to use the heat of such parameters directly at an industrial facility. In connection with the increase in prices for energy resources, interest in them is growing, the production of heat recovery units and utilizing thermal transformers is being established, which allows us to hope for an improvement in the near future with the use of such VER in industry.
Calculations of the effectiveness of energy-saving measures show that each unit of thermal energy (1 J, 1 kcal) gives an equivalent saving of natural fuel fivefold. In those cases when it was possible to find the most successful solutions, the savings in natural fuel reached a tenfold size.
The main reason for this is the lack of intermediate stages of extraction, enrichment, conversion, transport of fuel energy resources to ensure the amount of saved energy resources. Capital investments in energy-saving measures turn out to be 2-3 times lower than the required capital investments in the mining and related industries to obtain an equivalent amount of natural fuel.
Within the framework of the traditionally established approach, heat and power systems of large industrial consumers are considered in the only way - as a source of energy resources of the required quality in the required quantity in accordance with the requirements of the technological regulations. The mode of operation of thermal power systems is subject to the conditions dictated by the consumer. This approach usually leads to miscalculations in the selection of equipment and the adoption of inefficient decisions on the organization of heat technology and heat power systems, i.e. to hidden or obvious overspending of fuel and energy resources, which, of course, affects the cost of products.
In particular, seasonality has a rather strong influence on the overall efficiency of energy consumption of industrial enterprises. During the summer period, there is usually an excess supply of VER heat technology and at the same time there are problems associated with insufficient volume and quality of cooling heat carriers due to an increase in the temperature of the circulating water. In the period of low outdoor temperatures, on the contrary, there is an overexpenditure of thermal energy associated with an increase in the proportion of heat losses through external fences, which is very difficult to detect.
Thus, modern heat and power systems should be developed or modernized in an organic relationship with industrial heat technology, taking into account the time schedules and operating modes of both units - consumers of ER, and units, which, in turn, are sources of VER. The main tasks of industrial heat power engineering are:
ensuring the balance of energy resources of the required parameters at any time for reliable and economical operation of individual units and production association generally; optimal choice of energy carriers in terms of thermophysical and thermodynamic parameters;
determination of the nomenclature and modes of operation of reserve and storage sources of energy resources, as well as alternative consumers of VER during their excess supply; identification of reserves for increasing the energy efficiency of production at the current level technical development and in the distant future.
In the future, PP TPPs appear to be a complex energy-technological complex in which energy and technological flows are closely interconnected. At the same time, consumers of fuel and energy resources can be sources of secondary energy for technological installations of a given production, an external consumer or utilization power plants that generate other types of energy resources.
Specific heat consumption for output industrial productions varies from one to tens of gigajoules per tonne of the final product, depending on the installed capacity of the equipment, the nature of the technological process, heat losses and the uniformity of the consumption schedule. At the same time, the most attractive are measures aimed at improving the energy efficiency of existing industries and not introducing significant changes in the mode of operation of the main technological equipment. The most attractive is the organization of closed heat supply systems based on utilization plants, whose enterprises have a high proportion consumption of medium and low pressure steam and hot water.
Most enterprises are characterized by significant losses of heat supplied to the system in heat exchangers cooled by circulating water or air - in condensers, coolers, refrigerators, etc. Under such conditions, it is expedient to organize centralized and group systems with an intermediate coolant in order to recuperate the waste heat. This will allow to connect numerous sources and consumers within the entire enterprise or a dedicated unit and provide hot water of the required parameters for industrial and sanitary consumers.
Closed heat supply systems are one of the main elements of waste-free production systems. The recovery of heat of low parameters and its transformation to the required temperature level can return a significant part of energy resources, which is usually discharged into the atmosphere directly or using circulating water supply systems.
In technological systems using steam and hot water as energy carriers, the temperature and pressure of the supplied and discharged heat in the cooling processes are the same. The amount of heat released may even exceed the amount of heat introduced into the system, since cooling processes are usually accompanied by a change in the state of aggregation of the substance. Under such conditions, it is possible to organize utilization centralized or local heat pump systems that allow recovering up to 70% of the heat spent in heat-consuming installations.
Such systems are widely used in the USA, Germany, Japan and other countries, but in our country their creation has not been given sufficient attention, although theoretical developments carried out in the 30s of the last century are known. Currently, the situation is changing and heat pump installations are beginning to be introduced into both the heat supply systems of housing and communal services and industrial facilities.
One of the effective solutions is the organization of waste cooling systems based on absorption heat transformers (ATTs). Industrial refrigeration systems are based on vapor compression refrigeration units, and the consumption of electricity for the production of cold reaches 15-20% of its total consumption throughout the enterprise. Absorption heat transformers as alternative sources of cold supply have some advantages, in particular:
low-potential heat of process water, flue gases or low-pressure exhaust steam can be used to drive the ATT;
with the same composition of the equipment, ATT is able to operate both in the cold supply mode and in the heat pump mode for heat supply.
Air and cold supply systems of an industrial enterprise do not have a significant impact on the supply of SER and can be considered as heat consumers when developing recycling measures.
In the future, we should expect the emergence of fundamentally new waste-free industrial technologies created on the basis of closed production cycles, as well as a significant increase in the share of electricity in the energy consumption structure.
The growth in electricity consumption in industry will be associated primarily with the development of cheap energy sources - fast neutron reactors, thermonuclear reactors, etc.
At the same time, we should expect a deterioration in the environmental situation associated with the global overheating of the planet due to the intensification of "thermal pollution" - the growth of thermal emissions into the atmosphere.
Control questions and tasks for topic 1
1. What types of energy carriers are used to carry out the main technological processes in the pyrolysis department, as well as at the stage of isolation and separation of reaction products in the production of ethylene?
2. Describe the incoming and outgoing parts of the energy balance of the pyrolysis furnace. How did the organization of feedwater heating affect them?
3. Describe the structure of energy costs in the production of isoprene by the two-stage dehydrogenation method. What proportion of it is the consumption of cold and recycled water?
4. Analyze the structure of the heat balance for the production of synthetic ethyl alcohol by the method of direct hydration of ethylene. List the items of the expenditure part of the balance that relate to the loss of thermal energy.
5. Explain why the heat technology of the TAC base is classified as low-temperature.
6. What characteristics make it possible to evaluate the uniformity of heat loads throughout the year?
7. Give examples of industrial technologies that belong to the second group in terms of the share of heat consumption for own needs.
8. According to the daily schedule of steam consumption at a petrochemical plant, determine its maximum and minimum values and compare them. Describe the monthly schedule of heat consumption of a petrochemical enterprise.
9. What explains the uneven annual schedules of heat loads of industrial enterprises?
10. Compare the graphs of annual loads of machine-building enterprises and chemical plants and formulate conclusions.
11. Should combustible production waste always be considered secondary energy resources?
12. Describe the structure of heat consumption in industry, taking into account the temperature level of heat absorption.
13. Explain the principle of determining the available amount of heat of the VER of combustion products sent to waste heat boilers.
14. What is the equivalent saving of natural fuel by saving a unit of heat at the stage of consumption and why?
15. Compare the yields of VER in the production of butadiene by two-stage dehydrogenation n-butane and the method of contact decomposition of alcohol (see Table P.1.1).
Table P.l.l
Secondary energy resources of petrochemical industries
The electric power industry, like other industries, has its own problems and development prospects.
At present, the Russian power industry is in crisis. The concept of "energy crisis" can be defined as a state of tension that has developed as a result of a mismatch between the needs of modern society for energy and energy reserves, including due to the irrational structure of their consumption.
In Russia, one can currently distinguish 10 groups most pressing problems:
- one). The presence of a large proportion of physically and morally obsolete equipment. An increase in the share of physically worn-out funds leads to an increase in accidents, frequent repairs and a decrease in the reliability of energy supply, which is exacerbated by excessive load production capacity and insufficient reserves. Today, equipment wear is one of the most important problems in the electric power industry. At Russian power plants, it is very large. The presence of a large proportion of physically and morally obsolete equipment complicates the situation with ensuring the safety of power plants. About one fifth production assets in the electric power industry are close to or have exceeded the design life and require reconstruction or replacement. Equipment is being upgraded at an unacceptably slow pace and in a clearly insufficient volume (table).
- 2). The main problem of energy is also that, along with ferrous and non-ferrous metallurgy, energy has a powerful negative impact on the environment. Energy companies form 25% of all industrial emissions.
In 2000, emissions of harmful substances into the atmosphere amounted to 3.9 tons, including emissions from thermal power plants - 3.5 million tons. Sulfur dioxide accounts for up to 40% of total emissions, solids - 30%, nitrogen oxides - 24%. That is, TPPs are the main cause of the formation of acidic residues.
The largest air pollutants are Raftinskaya GRES (Asbest, Sverdlovsk region) - 360 thousand tons, Novocherkassk (Novocherkassk, Rostov region) - 122 thousand tons, Troitskaya (Troitsk-5, Chelyabinsk region) - 103 thousand tons, Verkhnetagilskaya (Sverdlovsk region) - 72 thousand . tons.
The energy industry is also the largest consumer of fresh and sea water, which is used for cooling the units and used as a heat carrier. The industry accounts for 77% of the total volume of fresh water used by Russian industry.
Volume Wastewater, discharged by industry enterprises into surface water bodies, in 2000 amounted to 26.8 billion cubic meters. m. (5.3% more than in 1999). The largest sources of water pollution are thermal power plants, while state district power plants are the main sources of air pollution. This is CHPP-2 (Vladivostok) - 258 million cubic meters. m, Bezymyanskaya CHPP (Samara region) - 92 million cubic meters. m, CHPP-1 (Yaroslavl) - 65 million cubic meters. m, CHPP-10 (Angarsk, Irkutsk region) - 54 million cubic meters. m, CHPP-15 and Pervomaiskaya CHPP (St. Petersburg) - a total of 81 million cubic meters. m.
In the energy sector, a large amount of toxic waste (slag, ash) is also generated. In 2000, the volume of toxic waste amounted to 8.2 million tons.
In addition to air and water pollution, energy enterprises pollute soils, and hydroelectric power plants have a strong impact on the regime of rivers, river and floodplain ecosystems.
- 3). Rigid tariff policy. In the electric power industry, questions have been raised about the economical use of energy and tariffs for it. We can talk about the need to save generated electricity. Indeed, at present, the country consumes 3 times more energy per unit of production than in the United States. This area is to be big job. In turn, energy tariffs are growing at a faster pace. The tariffs in force in Russia and their correlation do not correspond to world and European practice. The existing tariff policy has led to unprofitable activities and low profitability of a number of AO-energos.
- four). A number of districts are already experiencing difficulties with the provision of electricity. Along with the Central region, there is a shortage of electricity in the Central Black Earth, Volga-Vyatka and North-Western economic regions. For example, in the Central Economic Region in 1995, a huge amount of electricity was produced - 19% of the all-Russian indicators (154.7 billion kW), but it is all consumed within the region.
- 5). The increase in power is reduced. This is due to low-quality fuel, depreciation of equipment, work to improve the safety of units and a number of other reasons. Incomplete use of HPP capacity is due to the low water content of the rivers. At present, 16% of the capacities of Russian power plants have already worked out their resource. Of these, hydroelectric power plants account for 65%, thermal power plants - 35%. The commissioning of new capacities decreased to 0.6-1.5 million kWh per year (1990-2000) compared to 6-7 million kWh per year (1976-1985).
- 6). The resulting opposition from the public and local authorities authorities to locate electric power facilities due to their extremely low environmental safety. In particular, after the Chernobyl disaster, many survey works, construction and expansion of nuclear power plants at 39 sites of a total design capacity 109 million kW.
- 7). Non-payments, both on the part of consumers of electricity and on the part of energy companies for fuel, equipment, etc.;
- eight). Lack of investment associated with both the ongoing tariff policy and the financial "opacity" of the industry. The largest Western strategic investors are ready to invest in the Russian electric power industry only on the condition of an increase in tariffs in order to ensure the return on investment.
- 9). Interruptions in the power supply of certain regions, in particular Primorye;
- ten). Low coefficient of useful use of energy resources. This means that 57% of energy resources are lost every year. Most of the losses occur in power plants, in engines that directly use fuel, as well as in technological processes where the fuel serves as a raw material. When transporting fuel, large losses of energy resources also occur.
As for development prospects power industry in Russia, then, despite all its problems, the power industry has sufficient prospects.
For example, the operation of thermal power plants requires the extraction of a huge amount of non-renewable resources, has a rather low efficiency, and leads to environmental pollution. In Russia, thermal power plants operate on fuel oil, gas, and coal. However, at this stage, regional energy companies with a high share of gas in the structure of the fuel balance are attractive as a more efficient and environmentally friendly fuel. In particular, it can be noted that gas-fired power plants emit 40% less carbon dioxide into the atmosphere. In addition, gas stations have a higher installed capacity utilization factor compared to fuel oil and coal-fired stations, have a more stable heat supply and do not incur fuel storage costs. Gas-fired stations are in better condition than coal-fired and oil-fired ones, as they are relatively recently put into operation. As well as gas prices are regulated by the state. Thus, the construction of thermal power plants fueled by gas is becoming more promising. Also at TPPs, it is promising to use dust-cleaning equipment with the highest possible efficiency, while using the resulting ash as a raw material in the production of building materials.
The construction of a hydroelectric power station, in turn, requires the flooding of a large amount of fertile land, or as a result of water pressure on the earth's crust, a hydroelectric power station can cause an earthquake. In addition, fish stocks in the rivers are declining. The construction of relatively small HPPs that do not require serious capital investments, operating in automatic mode mainly in mountainous areas, as well as embankment of reservoirs to release fertile lands.
As for nuclear energy, the construction of a nuclear power plant has a certain risk, due to the fact that it is difficult to predict the scale of the consequences when the operation of nuclear power units becomes more difficult or in force majeure circumstances. Also, the problem of disposal of solid radioactive waste has not been solved, and the protection system is also imperfect. Nuclear power industry has the greatest prospects in the development of thermonuclear power plants. It is an almost eternal source of energy, almost harmless to the environment. The development of the nuclear power industry in the near future will be based on the safe operation of existing capacities, with the gradual replacement of first generation units with the most advanced Russian reactors. The largest expected increase in capacity will occur due to the completion of the construction of already started stations.
There are 2 opposite concepts of the further existence of nuclear power in the country.
- 1. Official, which is supported by the President and the Government. Based on the positive features of nuclear power plants, they propose a program for the broad development of the Russian electric power industry.
- 2. Ecological, headed by Academician Yablokov. Proponents of this concept completely reject the possibility of new construction nuclear power plants both for environmental and economic reasons.
There are also intermediate concepts. For example, a number of experts believe that it is necessary to introduce a moratorium on the construction of nuclear power plants based on the shortcomings of nuclear power plants. Others suggest that stopping the development of nuclear power may lead to the fact that Russia will completely lose its scientific, technical and industrial potential in nuclear power.
Based on all the negative impacts of traditional energy on the environment, much attention is paid to the study of the possibilities of using non-traditional, alternative energy sources. The energy of the tides and the internal heat of the Earth have already received practical application. Wind power plants are available in residential areas of the Far North. Work is underway to study the possibility of using biomass as an energy source. In the future, solar energy will probably play a huge role.
The experience of developing the domestic electric power industry has developed the following principles of location and operation of enterprises this industry:
- 1. concentration of electricity production at large regional power plants using relatively cheap fuel and energy resources;
- 2. combining the production of electricity and heat for the heating of settlements, primarily cities;
- 3. wide development of hydro resources, taking into account the integrated solution of problems in the electric power industry, transport, and water supply;
- 4. the need to develop nuclear power, especially in areas with a tense fuel and energy balance, taking into account the safety of using nuclear power plants;
- 5. creation of energy systems that form a single high-voltage network of the country.
At the moment, Russia needs a new energy policy that would be flexible enough and provide for all the features of this industry, including the specifics of location. As the main tasks of the development of the Russian energy the following can be distinguished:
l Reducing the energy intensity of production.
ь Preservation of the integrity and development of the Unified Energy System of Russia, its integration with other energy associations on the Eurasian continent;
ь Increasing the power factor of power plants, increasing the efficiency of functioning and ensuring the sustainable development of the electric power industry based on modern technologies;
b Full transition to market relations, the release of energy prices, a full transition to world prices.
l Prompt renewal of the fleet of power plants.
ь Bringing the environmental parameters of power plants to the level of world standards, reducing the harmful impact on the environment
Based on these tasks, a "General scheme for the placement of electric power facilities until 2020" was created, approved by the Government of the Russian Federation. (diagram 2)
The priorities of the General Scheme within the established guidelines for the long-term state policy in the electric power industry are:
l advance development of the electric power industry, creation of an economically justified structure of generating capacities and electric grid facilities in it to reliably provide the country's consumers with electric and thermal energy;
ь optimization of the fuel balance of the electric power industry through the maximum possible use of the potential for the development of nuclear, hydraulic, as well as coal-using thermal power plants and a decrease in the fuel balance of the gas industry;
ь creation of a network infrastructure that develops at a faster pace than the development of power plants and provides full participation energy companies and consumers in the functioning of the market electrical energy and capacity, strengthening of interconnections that guarantee the reliability of mutual supplies of electricity and capacity between the regions of Russia, as well as the possibility of exporting electricity;
h minimization unit costs fuel for the production of electrical and thermal energy through the introduction of modern highly economical equipment operating on solid and gaseous fuels;
l reduction of man-caused impact of power plants on the environment by effective use fuel and energy resources, optimization production structure industry, technological re-equipment and decommissioning of obsolete equipment, increase in the volume of environmental protection measures at power plants, implementation of programs for the development and use of renewable energy sources.
According to the results of monitoring to the Government Russian Federation an annual progress report on the implementation of the General Scheme is submitted. In a few years, it will be seen how effective it is and how much its provisions are being implemented to use all the prospects for the development of the Russian energy sector.
In the future, Russia should abandon the construction of new large thermal and hydraulic stations, which require huge investments and create environmental tension. It is planned to build a thermal power plant of small and medium capacity and small nuclear power plants in remote northern and eastern regions. In the Far East, the development of hydropower is envisaged through the construction of a cascade of medium and small hydropower plants. New thermal power plants will be built on gas, and only in the Kansk-Achinsk basin is it planned to build powerful condensing power plants due to cheap, open-pit coal mining. Has prospects for the use of geothermal energy. The areas most promising for the wide use of thermal waters are Western and Eastern Siberia, as well as Kamchatka, Chukotka, Sakhalin. In the future, the scale of the use of thermal waters will steadily increase. Research is being carried out to involve inexhaustible sources of energy, such as the energy of the Sun, wind, tides, etc., into economic circulation, which will make it possible to save energy resources in the country, especially mineral fuel.
At the beginning of the 21st century, the issue of modernization and development of the Russian energy sector has become extremely aggravated, taking into account the following factors:
The depreciation of power plant equipment, heat and power networks by the end of the first decade could exceed 50%, which meant that by 2020 the depreciation could reach 90%;
The technical and economic characteristics of the production and transport of energy are replete with numerous pockets of unproductive costs of primary energy resources;
The level of equipment of energy facilities with automation, protection and informatics is at a level significantly lower than at energy facilities in Western Europe and the United States;
The primary energy resource at TPPs in Russia is used with an efficiency not exceeding 32 - 33%, in contrast to countries that use Hi-tech steam power cycle with efficiency up to 50% and higher;
Already in the first five years of the 21st century, as the Russian economy stabilized, it became obvious that the energy sector could turn from a “locomotive” of the economy into an “obstacle course”. By 2005, the energy system of the Moscow region became scarce;
Finding funds for the modernization and development of the energy base of Russia in a market economy and reforming the energy sector based on market principles.
Under these conditions, several programs were created, but their additions and “development” continue.
Here is one of the programs created at the end of the last century (Table 6).
Table 6. Commissioning of capacities of power plants, million kW.
Table 7. Investment needs of the electric power industry, billion dollars
The severity of the state of affairs with the energy supply of the Russian economy and social sphere according to RAO "UES of Russia" experts, it is illustrated by the emergence of energy-deficient regions (during the autumn-winter period of maximum consumption loads).
This is how the GOELRO-2 energy program arose. It should be noted that different sources give significantly different figures from each other. That is why in the previous tables (Table 6, Table 7) we present the maximum of the published indicators. Obviously, this "ceiling" level of forecasts can be used as a guideline.
Key areas should include:
1. Orientation towards the creation of thermal power plants on solid fuel. As natural gas prices are brought to world levels, solid fuel thermal power plants will be economically justified. Modern methods coal combustion (in a circulating fluidized bed), and then coal-fired combined cycle technologies with preliminary coal gasification or its combustion in pressurized fluidized bed boilers make solid fuel thermal power plants competitive in the “market” of thermal power plants of the future.
2. The use of “expensive” natural gas at newly constructed TPPs will be justified only when using combined cycle plants, as well as when creating mini-TPPs based on gas turbines, etc.
3. Technical re-equipment existing TPPs due to the growing physical and moral depreciation will remain a priority. It should be noted that when replacing components and assemblies, it becomes possible to introduce perfect technical solutions, including in matters of automation and informatics.
4. The development of nuclear power in the near future is associated with the completion of the construction of high-availability units, as well as work to extend the life of nuclear power plants for an economically justified period of time. In the longer term, the commissioning of capacities at nuclear power plants should be carried out by replacing dismantled units with new generation power units that meet modern requirements security.
The future development of nuclear energy is due to the solution of a number of problems, the main of which are the achievement of complete safety of existing and new nuclear power plants, the closure of nuclear power plants that have exhausted their service life, and ensuring the economic competitiveness of nuclear energy in comparison with alternative energy technologies.
5. An important direction in the electric power industry for modern conditions is the development of a network of distributed generating capacities through the construction of small power plants, first of all, small-capacity CHPPs with CCGT and GTU
