The term "marketing" in translation from English "market" (market) means activities in the field of the market, sales. In the historical aspect, the elements of marketing originate in ancient times. Thus, the institute of heralds is the progenitor modern means mass media. Fairs held near the monasteries on holidays have evolved over time into modern ones. international exhibitions. The stamps left by artisans on clay pots are a primitive form of trademarks, brands of world-famous firms.
Marketing as a business philosophy originated as early as 1650. The Japanese firm Mitsui opened a store with marketing incentives. In the US, as early as 1902, marketing was being taught at leading universities. The American Marketing Association was formed in 1926 and is still in existence today. More actively marketing began to be applied in practice, starting in the 1950s. Among foreign experts who have made the most significant contribution to the development of marketing as a science, the following authors can be distinguished - B. Berman, G. Bolt, M. Brun, A. Weissman, D. Gardner, D. Garrett, P. Drucker, E. Dinchel , F. Kotler, J. Lambin, T. Levitt, S. Marjaro, J. Evans.
In Russia, the concept of promoting and selling goods was not relevant until the transition to a market economy, since in conditions of a total shortage there was no need for it. Therefore, marketing in Russia begins in 1990. Previously, it concerned only foreign economic activity. In 1995, there is Russian association Marketing (President A.A. Bravermann). In general, there are three stages in the development of marketing in Russia:
Mid 70s - the appearance of publications of the first Russian marketers: G. Abramishvili, N. Gerchikova, A. Goryachev, B. Solvyev, Y. Trusov. These works described the possibilities of using marketing mainly in foreign economic activity and were actively discussed at meetings of the marketing section at the USSR Chamber of Commerce and Industry.
Mid 80s - early 90s. - the appearance of the works of Golubkov, N. Moiseeva, A. Porshnev and others. They specialized mainly in general marketing problems of the external and emerging domestic market.
Since the mid-90s - the emergence of works devoted to the development of individual domestic submarkets (commodity, financial, labor), as well as publications in the field of marketing of non-profit organizations and social marketing. (E. Utkin, N. Vasilyeva, F. Novikov and others)
In a broad sense, marketing can be defined as the process of planning and managing the development of goods and services, pricing policy, promotion of goods to buyers and sales, so that the variety of goods thus achieved leads to the satisfaction of the needs of both individuals and organizations.
Philip Kotler (a well-known American marketer) gives a more concise definition of marketing, revealing its main purpose: "marketing is a type of human activity aimed at satisfying needs and requirements through exchange."
Summarizing various interpretations, marketing can be defined as a combination of science, art effective work and intuitive foresight of the future course of events in the market.
Unfortunately, in Russia, the understanding of marketing at the theoretical and practical level is still reduced to the concept of operational marketing, that is, marketing is considered only as an integral part of applied marketing. economic theory and management tool. Also in practice, marketing is identified with sales. Meanwhile, the task of marketing is to make sales efforts unnecessary, that is, to know and understand the client so well that the product or service fully satisfies him and sells itself.
Thus, the essence of marketing is as follows: you should produce only what will certainly find a market, and not try to impose on the buyer products that have not previously been agreed with the market.
^ The evolution of marketing concepts.
There are 6 main approaches to organizing marketing activities(Table 1). They represent different periods in the history of marketing development:
The concept of improving production (production) - 1860-1920. - argues that the prosperity of the company in the market is associated with low prices for its own goods, and therefore it must constantly improve production in order to reduce costs and maintain low prices. The use of this concept is advisable when the demand for a product exceeds supply and when the cost of the product is too high. The production concept was used by Henry Ford, it was very widely used in the USSR during the monopolization of industries.
The concept of product improvement (commodity) - 1920-1930 - claims that the consumer prefers only high quality goods and the company tries to produce them. It is important here not to cross the line where improving your own product overshadows the actual needs of customers (for example, improve flypaper for flies, and a chemical aerosol will be the solution to the problem).
The concept of intensifying commercial efforts (sales) - 1930-1950. - states that the buyer is most sensitive to the efforts of the seller in the field of sales and promotion. It is used by firms producing goods of passive demand (gifts, insurance, photo services), as well as in those conditions when supply exceeds demand.
The concept of traditional marketing - 1950 - 1980 - States that main goal is to ensure the desired customer satisfaction. That is, before starting production, firms study the needs of the market and only then proceed to its organization. Firms make a profit by maximizing customer satisfaction.
Table 1. Evolution of marketing concepts.
| № | years | Concept | Leading Idea | the main objective |
| 1 | 1860-1920 | Production venous | I produce what I can | Production improvement, sales growth, profit maximization |
| 2 | 1920-1930 | Commodity | Production of quality goods | Perfection consumer properties goods |
| 3 | 1930-1950 | Marketing | Development of the sales network, distribution channels | Intensify sales of goods through marketing efforts to promote and sell goods |
| 4 | 1950-1980 | Traditional Marketing | I produce what the consumer needs | Meeting the needs and demands of target markets |
| 5 | 1980-1995 | Socio-ethical marketing | I produce what the consumer needs, taking into account the requirements of society | Satisfying the needs and requirements of target markets while conserving resources, protecting environment |
| 6 | 1995 to present | Interaction Marketing | I produce what satisfies consumers and business partners | Meeting the needs of consumers, the interests of partners and the state in the process of their commercial and non-commercial interaction |
The concept of social and ethical marketing - 1980-1995. - states that the task of the manufacturer is to satisfy the buyer while maintaining and strengthening the well-being of society as a whole. This concept is generated by such disturbing facts as environmental degradation, lack of natural resources and other negative consequences of the development of the world economy.
The concept of interaction marketing - 1995-present - states that the main goal is to meet the needs of consumers, the interests of partners and the state in the process of their commercial and non-commercial interaction. Interaction marketing - product with reinforcement; a person acts as an important strategic resource.
^ Principles, goals, functions and marketing mix. Types of marketing depending on demand.
Marketing principles stem from the essence of marketing. There are many points of view regarding the number of distinguished principles. So, F. Kotler identifies three basic principles of marketing:
Focus on achieving the final practical result of production and marketing activities (increase or retention of market share, increase in sales and profits).
The focus of the company is not on short-term, but on long-term results marketing work.
Adapting goods and services to the requirements of potential buyers while influencing demand.
produce only what the consumer needs;
enter the market not with the offer of goods, but with the means of solving consumer problems;
organize production only after the study of needs;
focus on achieving the final result;
apply the tactics and strategy of actively adapting the production of goods to market requirements;
remember the primacy of the market in relation to the plans of the company;
building on a hierarchical principle (tree of goals);
quantitative certainty;
achievability, that is, the goals should not exceed the possibilities;
orientation in time (long-term - 5 years, medium-term - from 1 year to 5 years, short-term - up to 1 year);
consistency with each other.
The ultimate goal of marketing was clearly formulated by the famous American scientist P. Drucker: “The goal of marketing is to know and understand the buyer so well that the product or service suits him and sells on its own.”
Marketing goals are very diverse, but in general they can be classified into two groups:
economic (quantitative) - which are formed through certain digital performance indicators and through percentages. It may be profit maximization in the long run; increase in sales; increase in market share, etc.
social (qualitative) - these include concern for environmental protection; ensuring employment of the population; creating a product for low-income consumers; creation of environmentally pure product and etc.
Marketing functions are interrelated and complementary actions and measures in the marketing system that allow managing the processes of commodity exchange.
The marketing system functions continuously and therefore the marketing functions are cyclic (renewable and repeatable) in nature. Marketing functions can be classified as follows:
General Features:
planning;
organization;
coordination;
accounting and control.
Specific Features:
analytical function - the study of the market, consumer, participants in market relations, the commodity structure of the market, analysis of the internal environment;
market segmentation;
choice of target market;
analysis of the production and marketing opportunities of the organization (definition of strengths and weaknesses organizations);
development marketing strategy and programs;
development of commodity policy;
development of pricing policy;
marketing policy development;
development of a communication policy.
goods, commodity policy;
price, pricing policy;
distribution of goods (sales, sale);
product promotion (sales promotion, application marketing communications).
Table 2. Types of marketing depending on demand.
| No. p / p | The nature of market demand | The purpose of marketing and its tools | Type of marketing |
| 1 | Negative demand - when the majority of potential buyers in this market reject the product, regardless of its quality (some types of clothing are out of fashion; employers have alcoholics, ex-prisoners). | Change the attitude towards the product by improving it, adjusting the price and promoting it more effectively. | Conversion |
| 2 | Emerging (latent) demand - many consumers have hidden needs that cannot be met with the help of goods and services available on the market (harmless cigarettes, safe neighborhoods, more fuel-efficient cars). | Assess the volume of potential demand and offer the desired product to the market | Developing |
| 3 | Falling demand - sooner or later, demand for any product begins to fall. | Revise the entire marketing mix system, identify the weak link and reanimate it. | Remarketing |
| 4 | Fluctuating (irregular) demand - public transport, museum visitors (weekdays and weekends). | Synchronization of supply and demand through the introduction of flexible prices and appropriate incentive methods | Synchro marketing |
| 5 | Full demand - demand meets supply | Maintaining the achieved level of demand by maximizing the inclusion of all four components of the marketing mix | support waving |
| 6 | Excessive Demand – Demand greatly exceeds supply | Finding ways to temporarily or permanently reduce demand to block adverse events (buyer backlash and speculation) | Demarketing |
| 7 | Irrational demand - for goods harmful to human health and the well-being of society (alcoholic beverages, tobacco products, drugs, firearms, some medicines). | Convince consumers to stop (or reduce) the use of harmful goods and services by skyrocketing prices, restricting availability, and anti-advertising | Reactive |
| 8 | Lack of demand - consumers are not interested in the product or are indifferent to it. This can happen if the product is unknown in terms of its consumer properties, if consumers consider the products to have completely lost their customer value. | Activation of measures of socio-psychological impact on the consumer through a noticeable price reduction and advertising | Stimulating |
^ Marketing environment of the organization.
The firm's marketing environment is a set of active actors and forces operating outside the firm that influence the ability of marketing management to establish and maintain successful collaborative relationships with target customers. The marketing environment is made up of micro and macro environments.
The microenvironment is the forces that are directly related to the firm itself and its commercial opportunities.
The macroenvironment is the forces that affect the microenvironment of the firm (Fig. 1)
Microenvironmental factors include:
The firm itself - when developing marketing plans, marketing managers must take into account the interests of other groups within the firm itself, such as senior management, finance, design, logistics, production and accounting. It is important to form optimal structure enterprises, to establish effective and rational cooperation between individual units, which should have a marketing orientation.
Suppliers are business firms and individuals who provide the firm and its competitors with materials and resources.
Marketing intermediaries are firms that help a company promote, market, and distribute its products. These include the following 4 groups:
resellers - provide the company with the convenience of the place, time and procedure for the sale of goods;
firms-specialists in the organization of goods movement - help to create inventory, quickly move them from the place of production to the place of consumption;
marketing service agencies – marketing research firms, advertising agencies, consulting firms;
financial institutions - banks, credit and insurance companies.
Clientele – There are 5 types of client markets:
consumer market (consumer market) - individuals who purchase goods for personal consumption;
producer market (industrial goods market) - organizations that purchase goods and services to use them in the production process;
reseller market - organizations that purchase goods and services for their subsequent resale at a profit for themselves;
market public institutions - state organizations who purchase goods and services for subsequent use in the field of public services, or for the transfer of these goods and services to those who need them;
international market - all the markets discussed above abroad of the country.
Competitors - their complex multi-stage influence in marketing is considered at four levels:
needs (desires) - competitors - human needs compete, for example, clothes, shoes, vehicles(preference);
commodity-generic competitors - generic vehicles compete, for example, a car, a motorcycle, a bicycle (preference);
commodity-type competitors - types of bicycles compete, for example, road, racing, folding (preference);
competing brands - brands of folding bicycles compete, for example, "Aist", "Salyut", "Tair" (preference).
Contact audiences are any formal or informal audience that takes an interest in the activities of the company and influences its ability to achieve its goals. Contact audiences can either assist or oppose a firm's marketing efforts. They are divided into the following groups:
supporters - they treat the company with sympathy and support it in all endeavors (investors, sponsors);
sought - the company needs their interest, seeks benevolent interest, but does not always find it (media);
undesirable - oppose the company, the company tries not to attract their attention (clientele of competitors, various groups of social influence).
financial circles (banks, investment companies, stock exchanges, shareholders);
Mass media (newspapers, magazines, radio stations, television);
government agencies (the management of the company must take into account everything that happens in public sphere respond to product safety issues, truth in advertising, etc.);
civic action groups (consumer organizations, environmental protection societies, representatives of national minorities, etc.);
local contact audiences (local residents) - representatives of the company should regularly meet with the population and take part in solving pressing problems, for example, annually allocate a certain amount for the development of the area where the enterprise is located;
the general public (informal groups that influence the spontaneous formation of public opinion about the activities of the company);
internal contact audiences (workers and employees of the enterprise).
demographic environment - the market consists of consumers and therefore their demographic characteristics affect the activities of any company (age changes, migration processes, level of education, etc.);
economic environment – in addition to the people themselves, purchasing power is also important for markets. The general level of purchasing power depends on the level of current income, prices, savings and credit availability;
natural and ecological environment - marketers should take into account the following trends - an increase in the shortage of all raw materials, which means their rise in price and the need to replace them; rising energy prices; increased environmental pollution, which stimulates the development of the market for waste disposal and cleaning products; environmental protection;
cultural environment - in every society, people adhere to certain views and values, the main of which have a high degree of stability. The cultural environment influences the purchasing behavior of the population and the marketing responses of manufacturers;
technical and technological environment - sooner or later, the old technology is replaced by a more progressive one. Every firm must keep a close eye on major scientific and technological trends, among which the increase in the rate at which technological change occurs is of particular importance;
political and legal environment - these factors determine the role, strength and orientation of the state in the business sphere, and hence marketing; can stimulate or block the development of entrepreneurial structures through the legislative or regulatory framework.
On the one hand, the word "marketing" comes from the English "market" - market, sales, trade, and in its most general form implies "some activity related to the market." On the other hand, as a socio-economic phenomenon, marketing is still very young: it is a little less than 150 years old. Therefore, it is not surprising
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Theoretical foundations and concepts of marketing
Course of lectures on the discipline "Marketing"
for students of economic specialties
Topic 1. Theoretical foundations and concepts of marketing
1. Socio-economic content, specificity and evolution of marketing.
2. Goals, objectives, functions and principles of marketing.
3. The main elements of the marketing mix.
4. Basic concepts of marketing.
The purpose of the lecture: to study the basic concepts of marketing, the essence of marketing activities, the prerequisites for its development and the implementation mechanism.
Key concepts: marketing, need, need, exchange, request, market.
The essence of marketing lies in the fact that the company should produce only what will certainly find a market for the client or a specific market segment. Marketing is based on the original idea: to produce what the buyer requires and can satisfy his needs, requirements and requests, and at the price that he is willing to pay.
Marketing -
The process of marketing activity consists in the analysis of the market opportunities of the enterprise, the development of measures for the selection of target markets and the marketing mix and auxiliary marketing systems.
elements: product, price, distribution, promotion, each of which has its own characteristics and ensures the market success of the company.
2. What is the difference between the sales concept and the concept of target marketing.
Describe the elements of the marketing mix.
Topic 2. Marketing research
1. The concept of a system marketing information, its components.
2. Essence, principles, directions of marketing research.
3. Rules and procedures for marketing research.
4. Methods and tools for data collection in marketing research.
The purpose of the lecture: to study the essence, methods and tools of marketing research, the stages of conducting research on marketing problems.
Marketing research is a type of activity that connects a marketer with consumers, buyers and the public through information. The information is used in this case to identify and define marketing opportunities and problems, to develop, improve and evaluate marketing activities; to track the results of marketing activities; as well as to improve understanding of the marketing management process.
Marketing research is the collection, processing and analysis of data in order to reduce the uncertainty associated with making marketing decisions. The market, competitors, prices, consumers, internal potential of the enterprise are subjected to research. Information support serve as desk and field research, as well as various sources of information (internal and external, own and paid, etc.).
The rules for conducting marketing research have been enshrined by the International Chamber of Commerce and the European Society for the Study of Public Opinion and Marketing Research in the International Code of Marketing Research Activities since 1974.
The marketing research procedure consists of the following steps:
1. Development of the research concept.
2. Obtaining and analysis of empirical data.
3. Formulation of the main conclusions and presentation of the results of the study.
Marketing research methods consist of qualitative and quantitative. Information gathering methods include survey, observation, experiment and focus groups. Marketing research tools include questionnaires, mechanical devices, technical means.
1. What are the main areas of marketing research.
3. What qualitative research methods are used in marketing?
1. Concept and components marketing environment.
2. Microenvironment and its components.
3. Research of the internal environment of the enterprise.
4. Media environment and types of contact audiences.
The purpose of the lecture: to study the components of the marketing environment, the factors of the microenvironment, the macroenvironment and the media environment, to determine the degree of its influence on the development of the company's marketing activities.
Key concepts: marketing environment, microenvironment, macroenvironment, media environment, controlled and uncontrolled factors.
The marketing environment consists of macro, - and microenvironment. The macro environment is those factors that surround the firm and influence its functioning. The macroenvironment consists of six main factors: demographic, economic, natural, scientific and technical, political and socio-cultural.
All factors of the macro environment are interrelated and it is important to analyze them comprehensively. At the same time, not all marketing macro-environment factors affect the activities of enterprises, firms and companies in the same way. The organization itself must determine which macro-environment factors have a strong influence on its activities, and which factors pose a potential threat to its development prospects.
The marketing microenvironment is those forces of marketing that are directly related to the activities of the firm. Marketing microenvironment factors can be divided into two groups: direct and intermediate groups. The main components of the intermediate microenvironment are buyers, competitors, intermediaries and suppliers.
The marketing media environment is the factors of the marketing environment that can influence the relationship between the company and society. These include contact audiences, the media.
In marketing theory, there are also concepts of controllable and uncontrollable factors. Controllable factors are those that are controlled by the firm and its marketing staff.
Thus, a company in the market operates under the influence of various factors of the macro- and microenvironment, which largely determine the nature of the strategy and tactics, forms and methods of its activities.
Test questions:
1. Describe the factors of the macro environment.
2. Name the factors of the microenvironment.
3. What uncontrollable factors of the marketing environment affect the activities of firms, companies?
Topic 4. Consumer behavior in commodity markets
1. The concept and classification of needs and types of consumers.
2. Features buying behavior end consumers.
3. Modeling the purchasing behavior of consumer organizations.
The purpose of the lecture: to study the essence of consumer behavior, the main approaches to its study and the behavior of various types of consumers.
Key concepts: consumer behavior, needs, culture, purchasing decision-making process, end users, consumer organizations.
There are several theories of consumer behavior: behaviorism, theories of motivation by A. Maslow, O. Allen, Z. Freud, D. Schwartz, etc.
Needs can be classified on a variety of grounds: by object: material and spiritual; by subject: personal and public; by the level of abstractness: abstract and concrete; in relation to the production process: economic and non-economic; by relevance: primary, secondary, remote.
Marketing mix factors are a powerful stimulus influencing the purchase decision, but not enough to make the consumer make the final choice. It is also influenced by psychological, socio-cultural and situational factors.
To psychological factors include motivation, personality type, perceptions, values, beliefs, attitudes and lifestyles.
Socio-cultural factors include personal influence, reference groups, family, social classes, culture and subculture.
By the early 1980s, the situational approach, which includes the purpose, place and time of purchase, temporal effect, physical environment and previous experience, becomes the most important factor influencing consumer behavior.
The study of all factors influencing consumer behavior, purchase motives, product perception help marketers to model the process of making a purchase decision. In this case, the following steps are considered: awareness of the problem, search for information, evaluation of alternatives, purchase decision, behavior after the purchase.
supplier.
The process of making purchasing decisions in consumer organizations is more rational in comparison with the behavior of end consumers. This is due to the subordination of the purchase process to the needs of a particular production. However, it is not completely rational, since the decision is made by people - specific specialists who have certain psychological characteristics.
1. How do primary and secondary motives affect the buying process?
2. What factors influence consumer behavior?
3. How are consumer rights protected in the Republic of Kazakhstan?
Topic 5. Market segmentation
1. Classification and methods of analysis of commodity markets.
3. Basic principles of market segmentation of the consumer and industrial market.
4. The process of positioning the product on the market.
The purpose of the lecture: to study the essence and methods of segmentation, signs and criteria for segmenting various types of markets.
Key concepts: segmentation, segment, principles and criteria for segmentation, positioning, market capacity, market share.
An in-depth study of the market implies the need to consider it as a differentiated structure depending on consumer groups and consumer properties of the product, which is determined by the concept of market segmentation. Segmentation is carried out in order to maximize customer satisfaction in various products, as well as to rationalize the costs of the enterprise for the development of goods, their production and sale.
The process of dividing consumers (the market) into groups based on differences in needs, characteristics, and behavior is called market segmentation.
A market segment is a group of consumers of goods or firms that have relatively similar characteristics and respond in the same way to certain incentives and marketing elements.
Necessary condition segmentation is the heterogeneity of buyers' expectations and buying states. There are criteria and principles (signs) of segmentation.
The segmentation criterion is a way to assess the validity of the choice of a market segment, and the segmentation principle is a way to distinguish this segment in the market. Segmentation criteria are: segment materiality; segment availability; measurability; Compatibility of the segment with the market of the main competitors; profitability; efficiency of the company in this segment; controllability.
Consumer goods market segmentation principles: demographic (age, gender, migration flows, population, nationality, etc.), geographical (region, district, etc.), behavioral (value system, reasons for shopping, status user, intensity of consumption, degree of commitment, degree of readiness of the buyer to perceive the product, attitude towards the product), psychographic (lifestyle, personality type, social status acquired experience).
The market segmentation process consists of several stages:
1. formation of signs of segmentation;
3. interpretation of received segments;
4. selection of target market segments;
5. product positioning.
After determining the target market segment, the company must decide on the positioning of the product, that is, on ensuring the competitive position of the product in the market. Product positioning is a logical continuation of finding target segments, optimal placement of goods in the market space, giving the product unique properties and competitive advantages.
A firm's market share is the expected sales volume of a firm's product in that market. In other words, the rate of control of a certain market share for different marketing efforts. Market share reflects the company's position in the market and is a key factor in achieving a leading position and determining the degree of market control.
Test questions:
1. What is the purpose of market segmentation?
2. How can you characterize the target market during the period of marketing orientation towards mass production?
3. Expand the essence of building a typology of consumers?
Topic 6. Product in the marketing system
1. The concept of goods in economic theory and marketing.
3. Concept life cycle goods.
The product is the main element of the marketing mix and the success of the company in the market depends on how well the product policy is implemented. A product appears in marketing as a set of consumer properties - certain qualitative characteristics and values that can satisfy the needs of their owner. The use value of a commodity is expressed, in turn, in properties associated with the environment of the commodity. The product as an element of the marketing mix is presented as follows: product by design, product in real performance, product with reinforcement. By design, a product is a set of functional characteristics that can satisfy the needs of the consumer. A product in real performance is a product surrounded by a marketing mix. A product with reinforcement is expressed in the organization of an effective after-sales service throughout the product life cycle.
In marketing, the following classification of goods is accepted: traditional, services, non-traditional. Traditional goods include consumer and industrial goods.
Along with traditional goods, there are services that have a number of characteristics: intangibility, perishability, inseparability from the production process. These features influence the creation of a service marketing mix. Non-traditional goods include people, places, ideas, territories, since the principles and marketing mix are also applicable to these categories of goods, taking into account their specifics.
The life cycle characterizes the dynamics of sales volumes and profits from the moment a product enters the market until it leaves the market. The life cycle can be successful (traditional), consisting of four stages: implementation, growth, maturity, decline. Other interpretations of the phases are also possible, when rapid growth, initial maturity, stagnation, exit from the market are added, but these sub-stages characterize the separation of the main four stages and do not fundamentally affect the classical concept.
At each stage, the company, as a rule, makes a certain set of decisions about the marketing mix, focusing mainly on product policy, assortment management. In the process of managing the life cycle, the positioning of the goods takes place, for each subsequent flow of buyers, each subsequent segment and market.
From the point of view of marketing, a product can be new both in relation to the market, and for the company itself, as well as for the industry. In the first case (the strategy "old goods - new market”), innovation does not directly relate to the product, so by a new product we will mean either a completely new product that has no analogues, or an updated existing product. A product that has no analogues , thanks to the invention), or without changing the properties and characteristics of the product itself (by improving the external design, packaging, color scheme, etc.).
The model of the process of creating a new product consists of nine stages: defining development directions, generating ideas, selecting an idea, developing and testing a concept, developing a marketing strategy, economic analysis, prototyping, trial marketing, commercialization.
Test questions:
1. What is the essence of the product concept in marketing?
2. How can you characterize the life cycle of goods?
3. What is the new product development model?
Topic 7. Product policy in marketing
3. Marking and packaging of goods.
4. The concept and methods for determining the competitiveness of goods.
The purpose of the lecture: to define the essence, goals and objectives of developing a product policy, labeling and packaging of goods, developing and managing brands.
When developing a commodity policy, the main problems are: innovation (creation of new products or updating existing ones); ensuring the quality and competitiveness of goods; creation and optimization of the product range; questions about trademarks; creation of effective packaging (for relevant types of products); product life cycle analysis and management; positioning of goods in the market.
The assortment of goods is a set of goods formed in various ways: for certain area applications, for sale in a certain price range, for sale in specific distribution channels, for a certain category of consumers. By differentiating one product, you can create an assortment group. The sum of assortment groups is called the commodity nomenclature.
The formation of the assortment can be carried out in the following ways: creating a product line, differentiating goods for specific market segments, diversifying and developing a product range. Assortment management is expressed in its optimization by influencing the main characteristics of the assortment - breadth, depth, richness and harmony. Latitude - the sum of its constituent product groups. Saturation of the assortment - the total number of all produced (sold) goods. Depth of assortment - the degree of differentiation of each product or each type of product. Harmony characterizes the degree of homogeneity of the assortment in relation to the preferences of the end consumer, the reseller, the nature production process. Range optimization is a continuous process of product policy implementation. The optimal assortment usually contains products that are at different stages of the life cycle.
Test questions:
1. What is the essence of commodity policy?
2. How can you characterize the assortment?
3. What is assortment optimization?
Topic 8. Pricing policy in marketing
1. The concept of price, its functions, types of prices and their characteristics.
2. Factors affecting pricing.
3. Analysis of the pricing process.
4. Pricing policy.
The purpose of the lecture: to study the concept of price, its functions in the marketing mix, to analyze the pricing process.
Key concepts: price, pricing, economic value, pricing policy, strategy.
A key issue in marketing is to achieve maximum consumption(purchases) by buyers at the optimal price and given costs of manufacturing and marketing of goods, allowing to receive long-term profit in the required quantity. But to achieve this goal, marketing must determine the totality of the advantages of the product chosen as the object of the company's activity as a result of studying consumers (market), select the technology for its manufacture and sale that provides the specified costs. The totality of the advantages of the product ensures its sale and is valued in monetary terms as a price sufficient to cover the costs of developing, producing and bringing the product to the final or intermediate consumer, as well as to obtain the intended profit.
defined differently and sometimes significantly different from the marketing approach.
The buyer's perception of the economic value of a product depends on the ability of marketing to provide such a combination of quality, usefulness of the product, its price and organization of advertising that would give the product the greatest attractiveness in the eyes of the consumer at a given price that provides sufficient profit to the company. It's no secret that in the conditions of the Kazakhstan market, the price plays a decisive role when choosing a product along with quality indicators (durability, economy, ease of consumption, reliability, safety, design, speed, etc.), pre-sales and after-sales service.
As a rule, the following price functions are distinguished: accounting, redistributive, stimulating, regulating, and the function of balancing supply and demand.
Pricing methods include: cost methods, value and competitive.
Typically, the calculation of the price consists of a series of successive stages. determination of the purpose and objectives of pricing; determination of demand for goods and services; assessment of production costs; analysis of prices and quality of competitors' products; choice of pricing method; determination of the initial price; setting the final price.
The pricing policy defines the general principles that the firm intends to adhere to in setting prices for its goods and services. Based on the pricing policy of the company, pricing strategies are developed. The pricing strategy defines a set of practical factors and methods, procedures and activities by which the adopted principles are put into practice.
Test questions:
1. What determines the place and role of pricing in the marketing system?
3. What methods of determining prices for goods exist?
Topic 9. Sales policy in marketing
1. Distribution channels: concept, meaning, functions.
3. Wholesale, its essence and meaning.
The purpose of the lecture: to study the essence of the distribution of goods and goods movement, methods of distribution of goods.
Key concepts: distribution, marketing, product distribution, distribution channel, marketing intermediaries, wholesale, retail.
Product implementation is an integral element of a company's marketing mix designed for a specific target market. The implementation of the sales strategy of any enterprise involves the solution of two main issues: the choice of a distribution channel; managing the physical promotion of the product through the channel.
activities of the enterprise in a market economy.
The distribution channel is a set of marketing intermediaries, as well as the relationship between them regarding the physical promotion of the product and the transfer legal law ownership of this product from the manufacturer to the consumer.
The importance of distribution channels in the distribution system is determined by the utility (temporal, territorial and proper utility) that they create for the consumer, as well as the functions they perform.
The main functions of distribution channels: conducting scientific research; organization and promotion of sales; auxiliary functions (sorting, standardization, financing, insurance, etc.); information functions (providing information to participants in distribution channels); acceptance of risk (assuming responsibility for the functioning of the channel).
These functions are implemented through the activities of the main subjects (participants) of distribution channels - marketing intermediaries.
Marketing intermediaries are organizations and individuals who help move a product from the point of production to the point of consumption.
Depending on the participation of intermediaries, distribution channels can be of three types: direct, indirect and mixed.
Direct channels associated with the movement of goods and services without the participation of intermediaries (producer-consumer).
indirect channels associated with the movement of goods and services, first from the manufacturer to an unfamiliar participant - the intermediary, and then from him to the consumer (producer - intermediary - consumer).
It is expedient to use goods distribution with a high concentration of the market in one area (direct sales), and a spread of consumers in another and a small demand for products of one nomenclature position (indirect).
Distribution channel level
The length of a channel is determined by the number of intermediate levels present in it. Most often found . Greater number levels from the manufacturer's point of view limits the ability to control the distribution channel.
Depending on the intensity of distribution, that is, on how saturated the market is with a given product, sales can be intensive, selective and exclusive.
As noted above, a properly chosen distribution channel can improve the efficiency of product distribution.
distribution systems, you can offer best service or goods at a lower price, thereby attracting additional customers.
The distribution system consists of the following main elements: order processing; warehousing; maintaining inventories; transportation.
The main methods of distribution of goods are wholesale and retail trade. At the same time, wholesalers and retailers are important participants in the distribution channel.
Wholesale trade covers all activities related to the sale of goods in large quantities to those who purchase them for the purpose of resale or professional use.
Retail covers all activities of selling goods or services directly to the public for personal consumption.
Test questions:
1. What is the meaning of sales as one of the elements of the marketing mix?
2. Name the functions of distribution channels.
3. What are the main distribution methods of goods you know?
1. Model of the marketing communication process, its elements and stages.
3. Concept, functions, scopes, methods of public relations.
4. Sales promotion: concept, features, types.
The purpose of the lecture: to study the methods of marketing communications, to determine the place of marketing communication policy in the marketing mix.
Key concepts: marketing communications, advertising, public relations, sales promotion, personal selling, promotion.
Modern Marketing requires not only production quality goods and establishing an acceptable and affordable price for target consumers. Companies must also communicate information to their customers, i.e. engage in promotion.
Product promotion is understood as a set of various activities to bring information about the merits of the product to potential consumers and encourage them to desire it. The role of promotion is to communicate with individuals, groups of people and organizations through direct (for example, advertising) and indirect (for example, the interior of a store, bank) means in order to ensure sales of the organization's goods.
The main components of the marketing communications system are: advertising (advertising), sales promotion (sales promotion), public relations (public relations) and personal selling (personal selling).
According to the definition of the American Marketing Association, advertising is "any" form of non-personal presentation and promotion of ideas, goods and services, paid for by a clearly identified customer, and serves to attract the attention of potential consumers to the object of advertising, using the most effective techniques and methods, taking into account a particular situation. .
Sales promotions are activities that are designed to increase sales in the short term and immediately.
Sales promotion methods can be applied in three main areas: to stimulate trade (intermediaries); to stimulate employees of the company involved in sales; to encourage buyers.
Methods of stimulating intermediaries are: providing free consignments of goods; providing special discounts; joint advertising; trading contests and awards; cash prizes, gifts, additional vacations, contests; providing free samples, premiums, price discounts, coupons, free trial and product verification. product presentation, money back guarantee, sale of goods on credit, use of packaging, contests and games.
Public relations (PR) - any communication carried out with the aim of creating prestige and ensuring a favorable attitude on the part of everyone on whom the success of the company depends: its own employees, clients, authorities, the public, the general population. PR is a broad term referring to the overall image of a firm or the impression it makes. This is a systematically planned activity aimed at the opinion and attitude of persons of interest to the firm, its stability and sales of products. The main task of all efforts in this area is to establish an atmosphere of trust and understanding.
Personal selling as one of constituent parts The complex of marketing communications is designed to ensure the formation of favorable ideas about the product and encourage potential buyers to buy it. It provides for direct (individual) contact between representatives of the commodity producer and the end consumer. At many stages of the buying process (especially at the stage of formation of buyer preferences and beliefs), personal selling is the most effective tool impact on the consumer.
Test questions:
1. Describe the main elements of marketing communications.
2. Name the main means of advertising distribution.
3. What methods of stimulating consumers do you know?
Persuasive advertising is of particular importance at the stage of growth, when the firm is faced with the task of generating selective demand. This advertising gradually, consistently forms the consumer's preference, accompanying the perception of the image of the company and its products.
Currently, there is a wide variety of advertising media. The most acceptable for practical purposes of implementing the concept of marketing may be the following classification:
Advertising activity can be carried out independently by the company or by order of advertising agencies. There are two main types of advertising agencies: advertising agencies full cycle and incomplete cycle. The activities of agencies have a certain specificity.
Topic 12. Marketing planning and control
1. Role, benefits, levels of development of marketing plans
2. Classification of marketing plans.
3. Methods and stages of marketing planning.
5. Marketing control.
The purpose of the lecture: to study and assimilate the role of marketing planning, types and types of plans, methods and stages of planning.
Key concepts: planning, forecasting, marketing budget, marketing control.
One of the main goals of marketing is to establish the maximum possible regularity and proportionality in the activities of the company. The main task is to reduce the degree of uncertainty and risk in the activities of the enterprise and to ensure the concentration of resources in the chosen strategic directions of the enterprise's development. Achieving this goal is impossible without comprehensive and thoughtful planning.
Marketing important role in the formation of an enterprise development strategy, however, one should not forget about the analysis of the enterprise's own resources, its capabilities and shortcomings. In the current situation, there are practically no enterprises analytical service who would be responsible for the regular self-assessment of the company's activities.
Significantly changed external environment in connection with the transition of the republic to market relations demanded from domestic enterprises the mandatory use of a flexible strategy. Therefore, those enterprises that were able to take into account the ongoing changes and develop flexibility have noticeably succeeded. Having overcome the complexity of the adaptation period and having identified the ability to develop in the context of a general economic downturn, they are currently implementing a growth strategy. Thus, strategic planning makes it possible to successfully implement such promising areas of activity for management personnel as the development and application of new organizational structures, adaptation of known management principles to develop various strategies for market behavior.
Marketing planning objectives should be characterized by:
1. concreteness and measurability;
2. reachability;
3. orientation in time;
4. selectivity;
5. participation of employees in their formulation.
In marketing practice, various
Method " fixed interest” - deduction of a certain share from the previous or estimated sales volume;
Competitor matching method - built on the basis of taking into account the practice and level of marketing costs of competing enterprises, adjusted for the balance of power and market share;
The maximum cost method is a constant increase in marketing costs;
The method of linking goals and objectives is the calculation of marketing costs, taking into account the constant revision of the goals.
None of the above methods is universal and perfect.
In order to achieve the goals of marketing and, therefore, the enterprise, marketing activities must be controlled in an effective way. There are three main :
2. Profit control.
3. Strategic control.
Changes in the macro and micro environment of the firm require changes in the firm's marketing objectives, strategies and implementation programs. This type of control is called strategic control. For this purpose, a marketing audit is used.
The purpose of the marketing audit is to find out from the position of marketing to what extent the enterprise operates effectively in the market. In the final part of the study, short- and long-term recommendations are developed for improving the marketing activities of the company.
1. What are the basic principles of planning in marketing.
2. What impact on planning can be made by the factors of the external environment in which the enterprise operates?
3. Justify the importance feedback in the marketing control system.
Topic 13. Strategic planning in marketing
1. The meaning and essence of strategic planning.
3. Models used to develop a marketing strategy.
4. Stages of developing a strategic plan for the enterprise.
Strategic marketing planning is understood as the process of developing specific strategies that contribute to the achievement of the goals of the enterprise based on maintaining a strategic correspondence between them, its potential opportunities and chances in the field of marketing.
1. Conducting a situational analysis.
3. Determination of the marketing strategy.
4. Improvement of the program of practical implementation.
5. Development of a marketing budget.
6. Implementation of control.
changes.
To achieve the goals set, a marketing strategy is used, which is most closely related to the overall strategy of the enterprise. A marketing strategy is a fundamental medium- and long-term decisions that provide guidance and direct individual marketing activities to achieve their goals.
The main basic directions of the marketing strategy of the enterprise are:
Diversification strategy - the development of the production of new products, as well as the expansion of its activities into completely new and unrelated areas of the main activities;
Internationalization strategy – development of new and foreign markets.
Within the framework of the general strategy, more specific private strategies are developed.
There are four main approaches to planning a marketing strategy: I. Ansoff's product / market opportunity matrix, the Boston Consulting Group matrix, the impact of market strategy on profit / PIMS / and Porter's general strategic model. In all of these approaches, the organization evaluates and uses all of its capabilities, products and activities. Based on these assessments, the efforts and resources of the enterprise are distributed, and appropriate marketing strategies are developed.
Topic 14. International marketing
2. International marketing environment.
3. Development of international marketing strategies.
4. International marketing mix.
Key concepts: international marketing, export, import, international trade, global marketing, branding.
The participation of the country, as well as enterprises and organizations in the international market, is caused by various reasons, in particular, due to: the need to purchase goods that are not produced by domestic producers; strong competition in the domestic market and opportunities entrepreneurial activity abroad; availability of unused production capacity from domestic manufacturers; access to certain know-how abroad; instability of purchasing power and the exchange rate of the national currency; striving to conquer a new "niche" abroad.
The listed reasons can be initial for the appearance of motives that determine the purpose, the main tasks of international marketing:
Ensuring effective international activities;
Creation or expansion of a distribution network;
Increasing the reliability of business activities in an unstable exchange rate;
Stimulation, encouragement and promotion of foreign investment;
Reduced tax-related costs.
Subtypes of international marketing.
Marketing national (internal);
International marketing;
Marketing is global.
transportation, marketing, service, advertising.
AT international trade each commodity exporter faces the difficult task of rational formation of the product range. Goods for export should take into account the geographic, psychological, historical, social, economic positions of foreign buyers. Each type of product, which is included in a wide and varied commodity mass, must be informed to potential foreign buyers. In practice, an appropriate means of information about the product was formed - marking, i.e., applying conditional drawings, symbolic, digital, alphabetic characters to products, packaging, tags.
of particular importance in international trade trademark, whose main commercial purpose is to testify to high quality of the offered goods, inspire the confidence of a foreign buyer. Through the trademark, the manufacturer seeks to win a high reputation in the international market, showing high responsibility for the entire contract. For a foreign buyer, a trademark is a motive for buying, a kind of guarantee of the quality of the goods.
1. List the prerequisites for the emergence of international marketing.
2. Name the subspecies of international marketing.
3. Name the main forms of entering the international market.
Topic 15. Marketing of services and non-commercial activities
1. Concept, main characteristics, classification of services.
2. The specifics of the development of a marketing mix of services.
3. Marketing in the field of non-commercial activities.
4. Marketing organizations, its elements.
The purpose of the lecture: to form a holistic view of the features of marketing services and non-profit activities.
Key concepts: services marketing, services marketing mix, non-profit organization, marketing of non-profit organizations.
One of the directions of development of the modern economy over the past three decades is the rapidly expanding service sector. Experts argue that the adaptation of marketing in the service sector requires the use of three more "P" marketing: personnel (people), material evidence (physical evidence), method of offering services (process).
Marketing in the service sector includes not only external and internal, but also interactive marketing. External marketing defines a company's work in preparing, pricing, distributing and offering services to consumers. Internal Marketing determines the training and motivation of the company's employees, contributing to the improvement of the quality of customer service. Interactive marketing determines the ability of staff to serve the client.
A service is any activity or benefit that one party offers to another that is intangible and does not result in ownership of anything. Services have four main qualities that distinguish them from goods: the intangibility of services, the impossibility of storing services, the inseparability of production from consumption, volatility
on the development and composition of the service marketing mix.
do not seek financial gain. However, marketing approaches are especially important for non-profit organizations.
The features of non-profit marketing include the following:
Non-commercial marketing is associated with organizations, territories and ideas, as well as products and services;
More complex marketing goals, since success or failure cannot be measured in purely financial terms;
The benefits of non-commercial marketing often do not involve paying for services and goods by consumers;
Non-profit organizations may be expected or required to serve economically disadvantaged market segments.
Non-Profit Organizations usually have two categories of clients - these are consumers and those who finance the activities of such organizations - authorities or sponsors. The goals of non-commercial marketing should determine the number of customers that need to be served, the volume of services provided, their quality, as well as the amount of budget or sponsorship funding.
Organization marketing. Organizations often engage in marketing to "sell" themselves. Organizational marketing is an activity undertaken to create, maintain or change attitudes or behavior. target audiences towards specific organizations.
celebrity marketing and political candidate marketing.
Place marketing. Place marketing is familiar to people who are looking for new apartments or choosing vacation spots. Place marketing is an activity undertaken with the aim of creating, maintaining or changing attitudes and behaviors relating to particular places.
Housing marketing includes the development and active offering of housing for sale or rent.
Marketing investments in land property includes the development, sale of land. Land traders in different countries are developing complex marketing programs to interest potential investors in the proposed sites.
Marketing of holiday destinations is aimed at attracting vacationers and tourists to resorts, to specific cities, regions of the country. They are handled by travel agencies, airlines, hotels, government agencies. But in a number of places they are trying, on the contrary, to conduct demarketing.
character. This area is called public marketing.
Public marketing is the development, implementation and control of programs, the purpose of which is to achieve the perception of a public idea. To achieve proper response target group resort to market segmentation. They study consumers, develop programs and communications. Develop techniques to facilitate assimilation and incentives, use the techniques of the theory of exchange.
Test questions:
1. What is included in the concept of "service", the qualitative differences between a service and a product?
2. What signs of service classification do you know?
There are more than a hundred different concepts of marketing, the most concise and complete of which include:
The concept of marketing is a type of human activity aimed at meeting needs and requirements through exchange (F. Kotler).
The concept of marketing is the anticipation, management and satisfaction of demand for goods and services, organizations, people, territories and ideas through the exchange (Evans and Berman).
The concept of marketing is a system of management, regulation and market research (IK Belyaevsky).
Marketing, according to its broadest understanding, is a social and managerial process through which individuals and groups of people, through the creation of products and their exchange, get what they need (E. P. Golubkov).
Marketing is the process of planning and inventing, pricing, promoting and realizing ideas, goods and services through an exchange that satisfies the goals of individuals and organizations (American Marketing Association (AMA)).
Marketing is to understand the client, to see the goal, to achieve it, always remembering that in the end the wallet should get fatter (Sergey Vasiliev).
Marketing is simply a civilized form of warfare where most battles are won with words, ideas and trained thinking (Albert W. Emery).
Marketing is a market philosophy, strategy and tactics of thinking and acting of subjects of market relations: not only manufacturers and intermediaries in commercial activities, but also consumers, as well as suppliers, practical economists, scientists, entire organizations, up to government bodies (A.P. Pankrukhin).
Mamrkemting (from English marketing - selling, trading in the market) is an organizational function and a set of processes for creating, promoting and providing a product or service to customers and managing relationships with them for the benefit of the organization. In a broad sense, the objectives of marketing are to identify and satisfy human and societal needs.
The concept of marketing is mistakenly identified by many with advertising and sales. It is explainable. With the transition to market relations, television and street advertising, newspaper advertisements, mailing lists, etc. are constantly pouring in on us. They are always trying to sell us something.
Many are surprised to learn that the most important element of marketing is not sales at all. Sales, according to F. Kotler, is only the tip of the marketing iceberg. Sales is one of the many functions of marketing, often not the most essential. This does not mean that sales and promotion efforts are losing their importance. The point is that they become part of a larger marketing mix, i.e. a set of marketing tools that need to be harmonized with each other in order to achieve maximum impact on the market. Among the tasks of marketing are the identification of consumer needs, the development of suitable products and the establishment of an appropriate price for them, the establishment of a system for their distribution and effective stimulation. If the marketing service of an enterprise, a firm has done a good job, then there will be a demand for goods. P. Drucker, a well-known marketing theorist, puts it this way: The goal of marketing is to make sales efforts unnecessary. Its goal is to know and understand the client so well that the product or service will fit the client exactly and sell itself. F. Kotler gives the following definition of marketing: Marketing is a type of human activity aimed at meeting needs and requirements through exchange. Therefore, marketing functions are associated with the concepts: needs, needs, requests, product, exchange, transaction and market. Therefore, it will not be superfluous to recall what meaning these concepts carry.
The underlying premise behind the marketing pyramid is the idea of human needs.
Need a feeling of a lack of something. Human needs are varied and complex. Here are the basic physiological needs for food, clothing, warmth and security; and social needs for spiritual intimacy, influence, and affection; and personal needs for knowledge and self-expression. These needs are not created, but are the original components of human nature. If the need is not satisfied, the person feels destitute and unhappy. And the more this or that need means to him, the deeper he worries. A dissatisfied person will do one of two things: either he will look for an object that can satisfy the need, or he will try to drown it out.
The second premise of marketing is the idea of human needs.
Need- a need that has taken a specific form in accordance with the cultural level and personality of the individual. A hungry inhabitant of the tropics needs the fruits of tropical trees, a city dweller - a meat pie, etc. Needs are expressed in objects that can satisfy the need in a way that is inherent in the cultural structure of a given society. As society progresses, so do the needs of its members. People are faced with more and more objects that awaken their curiosity, interest and desire. Manufacturers, for their part, take targeted actions to stimulate the desire to own goods. They are trying to form a connection between what they produce and the needs of the people. A product is promoted as a means of satisfying one or a number of specific needs. The marketing agent does not create a need, it already exists.
The needs of people are almost unlimited, but the resources to meet them are limited. So a person will choose those goods that will give him the greatest satisfaction within his financial capabilities.
Demand is a need backed by purchasing power. A person chooses a product whose combination of properties provides him with the greatest satisfaction for a given price, taking into account his specific needs and resources.
Human needs, wants and demands suggest the existence of goods to satisfy them.
Product- everything that can satisfy a need or need and is offered to the market for the purpose of attracting attention, acquisition, use or consumption. All products that can satisfy this need are called the product range of choice. The more fully the product corresponds to the desires of the consumer, the more successful the manufacturer will achieve.
The moral is that manufacturers should find the consumers they want to sell to, find out their needs, and then create a product that satisfies those needs as best as possible. The concept of a product is not limited to physical objects. A commodity can be called everything that is capable of providing a service, i.e. satisfy the need. In addition to products and services, these can be individuals, places, organizations, activities, and ideas.
Marketing takes place when people decide to satisfy their needs and wants through exchange.
Exchange- the act of receiving from someone the desired object with the offer of something in return. Of all the ways to meet needs, exchange has the greatest advantages. Under him, people do not have to encroach on the rights of others, do not have to depend on someone's charity. They do not have to produce any essential item on their own, regardless of whether they know how to do it or not. You can focus on creating things that they have mastered the production of, and then change them to necessary items made by others. As a result, the total production of goods in society increases. Exchange is the basic concept of marketing as a scientific discipline. But the exchange, its implementation, depends on the agreement between the parties on its terms. If an agreement is reached, we can conclude that as a result of the exchange, all its participants benefit (or at least do not suffer damage), since each of them was free to either reject or accept the offer.
Thus, for a voluntary exchange to take place, five conditions must be met:
- 1. There must be at least two parties.
- 2. Each side must have something of value to the other side.
- 3. Each party must be completely free to accept or reject the proposal of the other party.
- 4. Each party must be sure of the expediency or undesirability of dealing with the other party.
These five conditions only create the potential for exchange. Whether it will take place depends on the agreement between the parties on its terms.
If the exchange is the basic concept of marketing as a scientific discipline, then the basic unit of measurement in the field of marketing is the transaction.
Transaction is a commercial exchange of value between two parties. It presupposes the presence of at least two value-significant objects and the coordination of the conditions, time and place of its commission.
As a rule, the terms of transactions are supported and protected by customs, traditions, legislation, the implementation of which is ensured by the relevant public institutions and state structures. If there are no customs and traditions necessary to maintain a certain type of transactions, then the market mechanism will not work in the sphere of these transactions. Legislation and the institutions that provide it, state structures can form appropriate customs and traditions if they satisfy the needs of participants in transactions.
A transaction must be distinguished from a transfer. The transfer is one of the forms of exchange and refers to gifts, subsidies, charity events. The one who gives the gift is counting on one or another benefit (good disposition towards himself, getting rid of feelings of guilt, etc.) or wants to put the other party in a position of obligation. Individuals and organizations accepting donations need to understand the reciprocity underlying the behavior of donors and strive to secure the benefits they seek. If the interests of the donors are forgotten or no gratitude is shown to them, then the assistance will soon stop.
The concept of a deal is related to the concept of a market.
Market is the totality of existing and potential buyers of the product. There are three different ways people meeting their needs. The first way is self-sufficiency, when everyone can independently obtain everything they need for themselves. The efficiency of such activities is very low. The second way is a decentralized exchange, when each person considers everyone else as potential buyers. It is very difficult and inefficient in terms of exchange. The third way is centralized exchange. A new face appears on the scene - a merchant. He is an intermediary between producers and buyers. The manufacturer supplies specific goods, and the merchant exchanges them for whatever is needed. Thus, for the purchase of goods offered by others, the buyer deals with one merchant, and not with many individuals. The appearance of a merchant drastically reduces the total number of transactions required to carry out an exchange in some given volume. The merchant and the centralized market increase the trade and operational efficiency of the economy.
As the number of individuals and transactions increases, so does the number of merchants and markets. In a developed society, the market is not a specific place where buyers and sellers meet and transact. The transaction can be completed without entering into direct contact with the buyer. For example, a firm advertises a product on television, collects orders from customers over the phone, and mails out products. AT modern economy markets are formed for various goods, services and other objects of value. For example, the labor market consists of people willing to offer their labor force in exchange for wages. To facilitate the functioning of the labor market around it, various intermediary organizations and employment consultancy firms. The money market is another important market that makes it possible to borrow, lend, save money and guarantee its preservation. With its help, resources are redistributed from less efficient enterprises and entrepreneurs to more efficient ones.
The exchange process requires work. Anyone who wants to sell needs to find buyers, identify their needs, create appropriate products, promote them on the market, store them, transport them, negotiate prices. The basis of marketing activities is product research and development, communication, distribution, pricing, and service deployment.
Marketers distinguish two types of markets: the seller's market and the buyer's market. A seller's market is one in which sellers have more power and where buyers have to be the most active players in the market. This is a market for the shortage of goods and services, which is most typical for the command and control of the economy. A buyer's market is a market in which buyers have more power and where sellers have to be the most active market participants.
Market segment- is a large, well-defined group of buyers within the market with similar needs and characteristics, in contrast to other target market groups.
Suppliers- subjects of the marketing system, whose function is to provide partner organizations and other companies with the necessary material resources.
Competitors- legal entities or individuals competing, that is, acting as a rival in relation to other business structures or entrepreneurs at all stages of the organization and implementation of business activities.
Intermediaries (Distributors)- legal or individual individuals who help manufacturing organizations to promote, deliver to consumers and sell their products.
Consumers- legal, individual individuals or their potential groups, ready to purchase goods or services on the market, and having the right to choose a product, a seller, to present their conditions in the process of purchase and sale.
Assortment (Assortment, range)- the composition of products sold by the company by groups, types, types, varieties, sizes and brands. It differs in latitude (number of commodity groups) and depth (number of models, brand types in each group).
Brand (Brand) A mark, symbol, word or combination thereof that helps consumers to distinguish the goods or services of one company from another. The brand is perceived as widely known trademark or a company that occupies a special place in the minds and psychology of consumer segments from the mass of its own kind.
Competitive benefits- factors that determine the superiority of the company over competitors, measured by economic indicators such as: additional profit, higher profitability, market share, sales volume.
Macroenvironment- factors influencing the microenvironment of the company. These include: demographic, economic, natural, scientific and technical, political and cultural.
Company microenvironment (Microenvironment)- factors closely related to the company and affecting its ability to serve target customers. It includes: the company itself, intermediaries, suppliers, competitors, target consumers and contact audiences.
Marketing tasks derived from the goals and represent a set of sequential actions that the company must perform in order to achieve the intended results.
The main tasks of marketing:
- 1. Research, analysis and assessment of the needs of real and potential consumers of the company's products in areas of interest to the company.
- 2. Marketing support for the development of new products and services of the company.
- 3. Analysis, assessment and forecasting of the state and development of the markets in which the company operates or will operate, including research into the activities of competitors.
- 4. Formation of the company's assortment policy.
- 5. Development of the firm's pricing policy.
- 6. Participation in the formation of the strategy and tactics of the company's market behavior, including the development of pricing policy.
- 7. Sales of products and services of the company.
- 8. Marketing communications.
- 9. Service.
- 10. Research of activity of competitors.
There are also tactical marketing tasks that change depending on various factors, such as demand. Demand can be: negative, absent, hidden, falling, irregular, high-grade, excessive, irrational.
- 1. Negative demand is caused by the negative attitude of buyers towards a product or service. The task of marketing under these conditions is to analyze why the market dislikes the product, and whether the marketing program can change the negative attitude towards the product through its alteration, price reduction and more active promotion.
- 2. Lack of demand. Target consumers may not be interested in the product or indifferent to it. The task of marketing is to find ways to link the inherent benefits of a product with the natural needs and interests of a person.
- 3. Latent demand is when many consumers cannot satisfy their desires with the help of goods and services offered on the market (harmless cigarettes, more economical cars). The task of marketing is to estimate the size of the potential market and create effective goods and services to meet demand.
- 4. Falling demand. The task of marketing is to analyze the reasons for the decline in demand and determine whether sales can be stimulated again by finding new target markets, changing product characteristics, etc.
- 5. Irregular demand (fluctuations on a seasonal, daily and even hourly basis): - rush hours in transport, congestion of museums on weekends. The task of marketing is to find ways to smooth out fluctuations in the distribution of demand over time through flexible prices, incentives, and other incentives.
- 6. Full demand. Such demand usually occurs when the organization is satisfied with its sales volume. The task of marketing is to maintain the existing level of demand, despite changing consumer preferences and increasing competition.
- 7. Excessive demand - this is when the level of demand is higher than the ability to meet it. The task of marketing, referred to in this case as "demarketing", is to find ways to temporarily or permanently reduce demand, rather than eliminate it.
- 8. Irrational demand, i.e. demand for unhealthy goods and services; cigarettes, alcoholic drinks, drugs, etc. The task of marketing is to convince such amateurs to give up such habits.
The main functions of marketing are:
- 1. Analytic function.
- 2. production function.
- 3. Sales function (sales function).
- 4. The function of management, communication and control.
Analytical function includes the following sub-functions: study of the market, goods, consumers; analysis of the internal and external environment of the enterprise. The production function consists of the following subfunctions: organizing the production of new goods and new technologies, organizing the logistics of production, managing the quality and competitiveness of finished products. The marketing function is the organization of the sales and distribution system, the formation of demand and sales promotion and the organization of the service. The function of management, communications and control is associated with the creation of organizational structures for management, planning, communications and organization of control.
Introduction
marketing history development
Marketing is, first of all, an entrepreneurial activity related to the promotion of goods and services from the producer to the consumer. Modern experts in the field of economics consider it in a broader sense - as a business philosophy that determines the strategy and tactics of a firm (enterprise) in a competitive environment.
As an economic concept and a special type of entrepreneurial activity, marketing arose at the turn of the nineteenth and twentieth centuries. This was a kind of response to the need to solve the increasingly complex problems of implementation in the conditions of the development of large-scale production and the growing competition of the market. There was a need to master new, more efficient methods of market activity, when the “consumer market” began to replace the “seller's market”.
Our country has switched to a market way of economic development. Among the terms characterizing the market economy, a special place belongs to the word "marketing". In just a few years, it has turned from a “bourgeois stepson” into a prestigious and necessary reality. The widespread use of marketing has given rise to many different definitions of it. But in all definitions, the words “consumer”, “exchange”, “activity” are necessarily present. It is they who form the foundation of marketing, the main formula of which is "Produce what is sold, and not sell what is produced."
Marketing is a diverse activity where psychological, social, moral, financial and economic processes are intertwined.
Marketing is one of the most important economic and social activities, yet it is very often misunderstood. The purpose of marketing is to improve the quality of goods and services, improve the conditions for their purchase, which in turn will lead to an increase in the standard of living in the country, an increase in the quality of life.
aim term paper is the study of the history of marketing development.
In accordance with the goal, the following tasks were defined:
To study the essence, goals, objectives and functions of marketing;
Consider the history of the development of marketing abroad;
Consider the history of marketing development in Russia;
Explore state of the art marketing in Russia.
The object of research is marketing.
The subject of the research is the history of marketing development.
The information base of the study is a set of special and scientific literature; economic research on the topic; reference and periodic literature on the research topic.
The structure of the course work consists of an introduction, two chapters, a conclusion, a list of references.
Theoretical Foundations of Marketing
The Essence of Marketing
The emergence of marketing as a specific management system, a method for solving production and market problems is nothing more than a response of an economic unit to the processes taking place in the world - as a complication of the processes of production and sale of goods, fierce competition, frequent shifts in the nature and structure of the market economy. demand, its market fluctuations.
Marketing is a complex, multifaceted and dynamic phenomenon. This explains the impossibility in one universal definition to give a complete, adequate description of its essence, principles and functions. About 2000 definitions have now been put forward, each of which considers one or another side of marketing or gives an attempt at its complex characteristics.
The word "marketing" is derived from the English "market" - the market and in translation means "market".
According to the US Institute of Marketing, marketing is a management function that organizes and directs commercial activity associated with the assessment and transformation of a consumer need into an effective demand for a specific product or service in order to achieve the intended profits or other goals outlined by the firm.
As defined by the American Marketing Association, marketing is the process of planning and managing product and service development, pricing, product promotion, and distribution so that the variety of benefits thus achieved results in the satisfaction of the needs of both individuals and organizations.
A prominent American marketing scientist Philip Kotler gives the following definition: marketing is a type of human activity aimed at satisfying needs and requirements through exchange.
According to the definition of the League of German Scientists: marketing is a system of commodity-money relations.
Marketing is a complex of organizational and technical functions of an enterprise related to the sale of goods and services.
Marketing is a system of measures to study the market and actively influence consumer demand.
According to the definition of the Academy of Management of the Russian Federation: marketing is a system of measures for studying the market, managing the production of competitive goods and services and their effective marketing in order to make a profit or other commercial effect.
Modern marketing concept.
Successful activity in the markets requires, on the one hand, an increase in the competitiveness of products based on the achievements of science and technology, and, on the other hand, a systematic improvement in the forms and methods of commercial work. These two interrelated factors ultimately determine the level economic efficiency activities.
In contrast to the previously dominant approach, when the marketing links were tasked with selling already manufactured products, the concept of marketing assumes that economic decisions should be based not so much on production possibilities as on market requirements. Therefore, the management process begins with a thorough analysis of the market, its conjuncture, current and future needs, and the activities of competing firms. On this basis, a marketing program is developed, promising areas of investment and marketing activities are determined. In other words, marketing means the close interaction between the spheres of production and circulation, which contributes to the efficiency of commercial operations.
The essence of marketing lies in the fact that the activities of the company in the market should provide:
reliable, reliable and timely information about the market, the structure and dynamics of specific demand, the tastes and preferences of buyers, that is, information about the external conditions for the functioning of the company;
the creation of such a product, a range of products that more fully meets the requirements of the market than the products of competitors;
the necessary impact on the consumer, on demand, on the market, providing the maximum possible control over the scope of sales.
From the essence of marketing follow the basic principles, which include:
1. Focus on achieving the final practical result of production and marketing activities.
2. Concentration of research, production and marketing efforts on the decisive areas of marketing activity.
3. The focus of the enterprise is not on the momentary, but on the long-term result of marketing work. This requires special attention to predictive research, the development of market novelty products based on their results, providing highly profitable economic activity.
4. Application in unity and interconnection of the strategy and tactics of active adaptation to the requirements of potential buyers with simultaneous targeted impact on them.
The principles of marketing are the initial provisions of the enterprise's market activity, which provide for knowledge of the market, adaptation to the market and active influence on it.
The principles of marketing determine the general direction of the goals of the enterprise in the field of marketing.
